Ch. 8 Paragraphs

1. Discuss representations and how they are used in thought. what kinds are there in general? How do they differ from each other? What evidence indicates their use in thought?
     The field of cognitive psychology was originally based on the notions that the brain represents information and that cognition (the act of thinking) is directly associated with manipulating these representations. We use two basic types of representation; analogical, which have some characteristics of actual objects, and symbolic, usually words, ideas, or other abstract things. Analogical representations are mental images of an item. Studies of how long it took to identify a rotated picture of a letter and its mirror image proved that we take the longest to process an object that is inverted. In symbolic representation, we use previous knowledge of something with words and ideas. With concepts, we categorize objects with similar qualities, as is shown in the defining attribute model.
2. Discuss expected utility theory and how its limitation are shown by the evidence that people use heuristic in decision making and are influenced by framing effects.
      Expected utility theory is a normative model of how humans should make decisions. This theory views decision making as a computation of utility, the overall value for each possible outcome. We then compare all the possible alternatives and rank by preference, and then choose the most desirable one. By using heuristics and algorithms, people's decision making process is influenced. With algorithms, the desired outcome is always reached. Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or "rules of thumb." With heuristics, we can decide quickly without having to weigh all of our options. When the framing effect emphasizes either the positive gains or the negative losses, we can be persuaded in our decision making.
3. Discuss how goals are involved in problem solving and at least two strategies people use for researching those goals.
     When a person has goals, they use their knowledge and problem solving abilities in order to move from their current location to the desired outcome. One strategy is to use subgoals. In this we break down goals into progressive steps, where each subgoal brings us closer to our actual goals. A common heuristic strategy for overcoming problems is working backwards. Proceeding from the goal state to the initial state can generate helpful strategies. Two other strategies include restructuring a problem by representing it in a novel way that you may not have considered, and changing your mental set by using an alternative means to find a solution.
4. Distinguish the three major approaches to intelligence and one major finding from each.
     General intelligence is a cumulative measurement of several intellectual abilities. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence.
     Howard Gardner proposed multiple intelligences. The three intelligences included: analytical, which involved problem solving ability, creative, which involved finding novel solution processes, and practical, which included everyday judgments. Studies found that many phenomenally successful public figures did not excel academically.
     Salovey, Mayor, and Goleman popularized emotional intelligence. This form of social intelligence utilized the perception, management, and understanding of emotions to guide thoughts and actions. Mood regulation and controlling behavior is an important concept of EQ.
5. Discuss the concepts of general intelligence, fluid intelligence, and crystallized intelligence and how they are studied.
      General intelligence deals with the performance of intellectual tasks. Scientist agree that IQ reflects various forms of intelligence. Studies with factor analysis that clustered similar items correlated with general intelligence. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is assessed in nonverbal, more culture-fair tests, such as identifying matching, colored shapes. Crystallized intelligence was tested by having people use the knowledge they gained through an experience to solve a problem.