1. Discuss the issues that arise in determining whether a person suffers a mental disorder. What are the criteria for judging whether a person has a mental disorder? What measures can provide evidence of disorder? Can disorders be faked?
Not all patients with mental disorders suffer from the same disorder. Emil Kraepelin was the first psychologist to attempt to categorize mental disorders in his book DSM. The IV version disorders cannot be diagnosed without the patient meeting a certain criteria of symptoms. It uses a multiaxial system that evaluates the five axes: clinical disorders, mental retardation and personality disorders, medical conditions, psychosocial problems, and global functioning. Patients may be given a mental status exam, undergo a clinical interview, or take the MMPI. Disorders can be faked which is why validity scales are used in tests to assess how truthful a patient is about their answers.
2. Discuss the possible causes of mental disorders. What is the diathesis-stress model? List the possible biological, psychological , and cultural causes?
Causes of mental disorders can be biological or environmental. The diathesis-stress model is a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event. Basically it assesses the factors that would make someone more liable to develop a mental disorder and what might trigger it. Biological causes include prenatal problems such as malnutrition, exposure to toxins, and maternal illness. Psychological causes include traumatic events, belittlement, and unconscious factors. Cultural causes focus on lifestyles, expectations, and opportunities.
3. What is anxiety? What are anxiety disorders? List at least three such disorders and discuss one of them, including evidence about its possible causes.
Anxiety is the stress or uneasiness of the mind caused by fear of danger or misfortune. Anxiety disorders are those where individuals feel anxious in the absence of true danger. Chronic anxiety causes sweating, dry mouth, rapid pulse, shallow breathing, increased blood pressure, and increases muscle tension. It can lead to nervous habits, headaches, intestinal problems, and illness. Examples of anxiety disorders include phobic disorder, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Phobias are fear of a particular object or situation, such as hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia: fear of long words. Phobias can be specific or social. Specific phobias affect about 1 in 8 people and involve particular objects and situations such as heights, spiders, snakes, enclosed spaces,etc. Social phobias, also known as social anxiety disorder, is a fear of being negatively evaluated by others and includes public speaking, meeting new people, eating in front of people, etc.
4. Discuss and distinguish major depression and bipolar disorder. What evidence indicates genetic causes for these disorders? What evidence indicates cognitive cause for depression?
Major depression is a long-lasting episode of depression, characterized by appetite and weight changes, loss of focus and feeling, etc. Bipolar disorder is when a person experiences extreme fluctuations in mood. People with bipolar disorder have periods of major depression and mania, and is equally common amongst men and women but usually emerges in late adolescence and early adulthood. Mood disorders involve a deficiency of one or more monoamines (neurotransmitter that regulate emotion, arousal, and motivation) in the brain. Cognitive causes involved in mood disorders, as proposed by Arron Beck are shown in his Cognitive triad. The cognitive triad states that depressed people view themselves, situations, and the future negatively. The learned helplessness model focuses on how depressed people feel unable to control events around them.
5. What are negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia? List and discuss several examples of symptoms in each category.
Positive symptoms in schizophrenia are those in excess (not in the sense of being good). Such symptoms include delusions, false personal beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality, and hallucinations, false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia are deficits in functioning. These deficits are caused by isolation and withdrawl and include antisocial behavior, apathy, and slowed reaction.
6. What is autism? Discuss the evidence that we are currently experiencing an epidemic in autism.
Autism is characterized by deficits in social interaction, by impaired communication, and by restricted interests. People with autism suffer social retardation, but may not be intellectually impaired. Those with autism have trouble understanding and predicting the behavior of other people. Signs of autism are apparent at a young age and are characterized by children seemingly unaware of others and typically have odd speech patterns. Biological factors that affect autism is the lack of oxytocin and prenatal and neonatal conditions that affect brain functioning. There was a 556% increase of children diagnosed with autism from 1991 to 1997, likely due to the greater awareness of symptoms by parents and physicians.
Tuesday, December 7, 2010
Ch. 14 Topics
1. The DSM IV.
The DSM is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It is a standard in psychology and psychiatry that categorizes mental disorders systematically. In the IV version, disorders are assessed using five axes: clinical disorders, mental retardation or personal disorders, medical conditions, psychosocial problems, and global assessment of functioning. By considering all five axes, a person can better picture a patient's specific symptoms and conditions. The DSM was developed by Emil Kraepelin.
2. The MMPI.
The MMPI is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The MMPI is a psychological assessment that uses 567 true/false questions to assess emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, and uses ten clinical scales to indicate if someone has a specific mental disorder. The test also includes validity scales to weed out patients who might bias their responses to either avoid detection or look especially troubled.
4. Concordance rates.
Concordance rates are the chance that two similar trials have the same result. Typically it deals with studies involving fraternal and identical twins. Concordance rates are higher concerning identical twins; usually around four times higher.
5. Antisocial personality disorder.
Antisocial personality disorder or APD is a personality disorder marked by the lack of empathy and remorse. Typical behavior of someone with APD is socially undesirable and feeling a lack of remorse for their behavior. This mental disorder is common amongst criminals.
6. Anorexia nervosa.
People with anorexia nervosa have an excessive fear of becoming fat. It is ten times more common in women than men. It is most common in upper-middle and upper-class white females. People with this disorder will become obsessed with food and body weight and may even force themselves to vomit after eating to satisfy hunger.
The DSM is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It is a standard in psychology and psychiatry that categorizes mental disorders systematically. In the IV version, disorders are assessed using five axes: clinical disorders, mental retardation or personal disorders, medical conditions, psychosocial problems, and global assessment of functioning. By considering all five axes, a person can better picture a patient's specific symptoms and conditions. The DSM was developed by Emil Kraepelin.
2. The MMPI.
The MMPI is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The MMPI is a psychological assessment that uses 567 true/false questions to assess emotions, thoughts, and behaviors, and uses ten clinical scales to indicate if someone has a specific mental disorder. The test also includes validity scales to weed out patients who might bias their responses to either avoid detection or look especially troubled.
4. Concordance rates.
Concordance rates are the chance that two similar trials have the same result. Typically it deals with studies involving fraternal and identical twins. Concordance rates are higher concerning identical twins; usually around four times higher.
5. Antisocial personality disorder.
Antisocial personality disorder or APD is a personality disorder marked by the lack of empathy and remorse. Typical behavior of someone with APD is socially undesirable and feeling a lack of remorse for their behavior. This mental disorder is common amongst criminals.
6. Anorexia nervosa.
People with anorexia nervosa have an excessive fear of becoming fat. It is ten times more common in women than men. It is most common in upper-middle and upper-class white females. People with this disorder will become obsessed with food and body weight and may even force themselves to vomit after eating to satisfy hunger.
Life Stress and Major Depression Article
1. How do we use stress in understanding psychological disorders and medical conditions? What are the authors arguing that we should do?
I has long since been a commonly accepted theory that excessive amounts of stress leads to psychological disorders, and specifically depression. There has also a substantial amount of proof that there is some association between stressful major life events and depression. Stress has been overly accepted as the explanatory factor for many disorders of unknown origins. Most individuals that are under stress are not clinically depressed so psychologists are trying to distinguish stress from major depression.
2. How common is depression? How long has it been known? How well known is it?
Major Depression Disorder (MDD) is one of the most common psychological disorders and the fifth leading cause of disability. Approximately 16% of the population of the United States will suffer MDD at some point in their lives. It is twice as common in women as it is in men. Clear clinical conditions have been mentioned in ancient religious texts and medical journals; however, depression was not popularized until the 1980s by the FDA and in 1997 by the pharmaceutical industry.
3. What have researchers claimed about stress and depression? What do recent findings show? What problems are present in earlier evidence? What kind of stress causes depression (or is it actually a cause)?
Using interview-based testing, researchers have found that stress casually precedes depression and is related to independent life events that are beyond a n individual's control. In the late 1960s the modern stress theory and the life-event-checklist were the major measuring factors of depression; however, these associations were refuted due to poor research design and faulty practices. Early findings confounded live events with actual symptoms (meaning they thought that losing your job was a cause of depression instead of a symptom). Approximately 50-80% of people diagnosed with depression reported recent severely stressful life events prior to onset.
4. What proportion of people who suffer major life stress become depressed? Why is the proportion so small? What factors come together to produce depression?
Only about 1 in 5 people exposed to sever life events actually develop depression. The proportion can be higher, depending on circumstances. Early trauma, social support, and genetic predisposition are all factors believed to influence the vulnerability of depression.
5. Why does depression occur without stress? What forms of depression might not depend on stressors?
It has been found that major life events may initiate someone's first episode of depression, but are not necessarily needed to precede or provoke subsequent recurrences. Depression caused by biological factors or from an escalating susceptibility may not require major stressors.
6. How should research in the future be designed to clarify the stress-depression issue? Why is there a lot of variability in the depression category as it is currently diagnosed? How can we tell normal from abnormal reactions?
Future research should recognize that MDD has a heterogeneous assortment of conditions and syndromes. It needs to distinguish between situational crises, short-term adjustments, and long-term clinical depression. It should also use community samples to predict and account for normal distress responses to acute life stress. More extensive interviewing that more extensively examines one's individual life, and that monitors mood patterns, may more accurately judge whether a patient truly has major depression.
I has long since been a commonly accepted theory that excessive amounts of stress leads to psychological disorders, and specifically depression. There has also a substantial amount of proof that there is some association between stressful major life events and depression. Stress has been overly accepted as the explanatory factor for many disorders of unknown origins. Most individuals that are under stress are not clinically depressed so psychologists are trying to distinguish stress from major depression.
2. How common is depression? How long has it been known? How well known is it?
Major Depression Disorder (MDD) is one of the most common psychological disorders and the fifth leading cause of disability. Approximately 16% of the population of the United States will suffer MDD at some point in their lives. It is twice as common in women as it is in men. Clear clinical conditions have been mentioned in ancient religious texts and medical journals; however, depression was not popularized until the 1980s by the FDA and in 1997 by the pharmaceutical industry.
3. What have researchers claimed about stress and depression? What do recent findings show? What problems are present in earlier evidence? What kind of stress causes depression (or is it actually a cause)?
Using interview-based testing, researchers have found that stress casually precedes depression and is related to independent life events that are beyond a n individual's control. In the late 1960s the modern stress theory and the life-event-checklist were the major measuring factors of depression; however, these associations were refuted due to poor research design and faulty practices. Early findings confounded live events with actual symptoms (meaning they thought that losing your job was a cause of depression instead of a symptom). Approximately 50-80% of people diagnosed with depression reported recent severely stressful life events prior to onset.
4. What proportion of people who suffer major life stress become depressed? Why is the proportion so small? What factors come together to produce depression?
Only about 1 in 5 people exposed to sever life events actually develop depression. The proportion can be higher, depending on circumstances. Early trauma, social support, and genetic predisposition are all factors believed to influence the vulnerability of depression.
5. Why does depression occur without stress? What forms of depression might not depend on stressors?
It has been found that major life events may initiate someone's first episode of depression, but are not necessarily needed to precede or provoke subsequent recurrences. Depression caused by biological factors or from an escalating susceptibility may not require major stressors.
6. How should research in the future be designed to clarify the stress-depression issue? Why is there a lot of variability in the depression category as it is currently diagnosed? How can we tell normal from abnormal reactions?
Future research should recognize that MDD has a heterogeneous assortment of conditions and syndromes. It needs to distinguish between situational crises, short-term adjustments, and long-term clinical depression. It should also use community samples to predict and account for normal distress responses to acute life stress. More extensive interviewing that more extensively examines one's individual life, and that monitors mood patterns, may more accurately judge whether a patient truly has major depression.
Thursday, December 2, 2010
Personality and National Character Article
1. What is national character? How does it differ from a national stereotype? What is included and not included in each of these?
National character is the shared perception of personality characteristics typical of citizens of a particular nation (very similar to national stereotype). The difference being that national stereotypes are shared perceptions across groups. National character is more narrow in that it excludes abilities, physical characteristics, and other features, such as Italians and their pasta. National Character is broader in perception than national stereotypes in that they include obvious, distinctive characteristics, but also personality-related characteristics about which people have a shared opinion.
2. Judgments of national character can come from people within or outside a particular nation. Do these two groups of people agree?
According to Peabody's research on 20 different countries, he found that, despite ethnocentric biases, in-group and out-group stereotypes generally agree when characterizing personality traits. He found that people hold shared beliefs about national character and that it is the same across cultures.
3. What is the National Character Survey? How is it related to the Five-Factor Model of personality? Can reliable differences between nations be obtained with this survey? If so, what are some of them?
The National Character Survey (NCS) is a test using 30 scales that measure the facets included on the NEO-PI-R. The facets, or traits were those apart of the Five-Factor Model that is used in the NEO-PI-R. Using the NCS, nearly 4,000 participants in 49 different cultures were asked to describe the national character of their country and subsequently asking them to describe an American. Reliable data was gathered from not only people of different nationalities, but also different age groups. The 30 facets were interrelated in many of the same ways and many people's judgments of other cultures matched what the people of those cultures believed.
4. What do the authors mean in saying "reliability is not validity?" How are personality ratings different from national character ratings? Can we compare the two for various countries? What are the problems that we encounter when we make such comparisons?
By "reliability is not validity," the author means that although the data proved to be unquestionably similar, should the test be measuring the wrong thing, the data would be wrong. Personality ratings are different from national character ratings in that they use different traits. Research done on the NEO-PI-R has replicable organization of traits across a wide range of cultures despite the differences in cultures.
5. As you can gather from the article, the authors conclude that the problems in measuring personality across cultures can be solved and that they have solved them, at least partially. So what evidence of reliable personality differences across cultures did they find? Do people in neighboring countries tend to have similar average (aggregate) personalities?
They found that aggregate personality scores were generalizable among the different groups. They found that there were also patterns with countries in a particular geographical area.
6. How similar are the personalities of Americans and Canadians, on average? How similar are the national character stereotypes of Americans and Canadians?
The personalities resulting from the NEO-PI-R and NCS found that Canadians see themselves as less neurotic than they really are and more agreeable than they really are. Americans considered themselves less agreeable than they really are and more neurotic than they actually are. The national character stereotypes are somewhat similar being countries with common languages, culture, climate, etc. There were 12 of the 30 facets that were significantly compatible, and six of them were negative.
7. In general, how well do stereotypes about national character agree with ratings of the personalities of individuals from those nations? Are there correlations at the level of the Big Five? Are there correlations at the level of facets within the Big Five? Are national-character stereotypes based upon a kernel of truth about the personalities of people in each nation?
Objective assessments show Canada and America have similar personality profiles, but different perceived national character. There are few dramatic differences; however, "agreeableness" was negatively correlated. The data shown by fig.1 showed that as far as the NEO-PI-R goes, The U.S. and Canada are fairly similar. When matching the NEO-PI-R with the results from the NCS in fig.2 There is very little correlation between the two within the Big Five or the facets. The national-character stereotypes did not accurately represent the same average of the personality tests, as was expected.
8. How may national-character stereotypes arise? What purposes might they have? What can be their consequences?
National-character stereotypes are related to economic, geographic, and historical factors. They arise by generalizations and cultural dominance. National-character stereotypes can lead to misleading assumptions and unnecessary prejudices.
National character is the shared perception of personality characteristics typical of citizens of a particular nation (very similar to national stereotype). The difference being that national stereotypes are shared perceptions across groups. National character is more narrow in that it excludes abilities, physical characteristics, and other features, such as Italians and their pasta. National Character is broader in perception than national stereotypes in that they include obvious, distinctive characteristics, but also personality-related characteristics about which people have a shared opinion.
2. Judgments of national character can come from people within or outside a particular nation. Do these two groups of people agree?
According to Peabody's research on 20 different countries, he found that, despite ethnocentric biases, in-group and out-group stereotypes generally agree when characterizing personality traits. He found that people hold shared beliefs about national character and that it is the same across cultures.
3. What is the National Character Survey? How is it related to the Five-Factor Model of personality? Can reliable differences between nations be obtained with this survey? If so, what are some of them?
The National Character Survey (NCS) is a test using 30 scales that measure the facets included on the NEO-PI-R. The facets, or traits were those apart of the Five-Factor Model that is used in the NEO-PI-R. Using the NCS, nearly 4,000 participants in 49 different cultures were asked to describe the national character of their country and subsequently asking them to describe an American. Reliable data was gathered from not only people of different nationalities, but also different age groups. The 30 facets were interrelated in many of the same ways and many people's judgments of other cultures matched what the people of those cultures believed.
4. What do the authors mean in saying "reliability is not validity?" How are personality ratings different from national character ratings? Can we compare the two for various countries? What are the problems that we encounter when we make such comparisons?
By "reliability is not validity," the author means that although the data proved to be unquestionably similar, should the test be measuring the wrong thing, the data would be wrong. Personality ratings are different from national character ratings in that they use different traits. Research done on the NEO-PI-R has replicable organization of traits across a wide range of cultures despite the differences in cultures.
5. As you can gather from the article, the authors conclude that the problems in measuring personality across cultures can be solved and that they have solved them, at least partially. So what evidence of reliable personality differences across cultures did they find? Do people in neighboring countries tend to have similar average (aggregate) personalities?
They found that aggregate personality scores were generalizable among the different groups. They found that there were also patterns with countries in a particular geographical area.
6. How similar are the personalities of Americans and Canadians, on average? How similar are the national character stereotypes of Americans and Canadians?
The personalities resulting from the NEO-PI-R and NCS found that Canadians see themselves as less neurotic than they really are and more agreeable than they really are. Americans considered themselves less agreeable than they really are and more neurotic than they actually are. The national character stereotypes are somewhat similar being countries with common languages, culture, climate, etc. There were 12 of the 30 facets that were significantly compatible, and six of them were negative.
7. In general, how well do stereotypes about national character agree with ratings of the personalities of individuals from those nations? Are there correlations at the level of the Big Five? Are there correlations at the level of facets within the Big Five? Are national-character stereotypes based upon a kernel of truth about the personalities of people in each nation?
Objective assessments show Canada and America have similar personality profiles, but different perceived national character. There are few dramatic differences; however, "agreeableness" was negatively correlated. The data shown by fig.1 showed that as far as the NEO-PI-R goes, The U.S. and Canada are fairly similar. When matching the NEO-PI-R with the results from the NCS in fig.2 There is very little correlation between the two within the Big Five or the facets. The national-character stereotypes did not accurately represent the same average of the personality tests, as was expected.
8. How may national-character stereotypes arise? What purposes might they have? What can be their consequences?
National-character stereotypes are related to economic, geographic, and historical factors. They arise by generalizations and cultural dominance. National-character stereotypes can lead to misleading assumptions and unnecessary prejudices.
Tuesday, November 30, 2010
Ch. 13 Paragraphs
1. What are traits, and how is personality understood from a trait perspective? How can we decide how many traits there are? How may they be hierarchically organized?
Traits are behavioral dispositions that endure over time and across situations. The trait approach to personality provides a method for assessing the extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions, such as sociability, cheerfulness, and aggressiveness. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert found around 18,000 dictionary words that could be used as personality traits. Raymond Cattell narrowed 16 basic dimensions of personality. Hans Eysenck proposed a hierarchical model of personality that included five traits within extraversion. Extraversion is a superordinate trait made up of five traits: sociability, dominance, assertiveness, activity, and liveliness. Each of these subordinate traits is made up of habitual and specific responses.
2. Discuss five-factor theory of personality, What are the five factors, and what does each refer to? What are the advantages and limitations of this approach?
The five-factor theory identifies five basic personality traits. Conscientiousness is how determined by how careful and organized one is. Extraversion is how social and outgoing someone is. Agreeableness is how cooperative and trustful one is. Neuroticism is how stable and dramatic someone is. Openness to Experience is how adaptive and methodical someone is. The five-factor theory is known to be reliable across cultures and age groups despite whether people rate themselves or are rated by others. The theory is limited because the terms are descriptive rather than explanatory and limits the vast number of traits to five dimensions; however, it does provide a common descriptive framework.
3. Discuss the degree to which personality is consistent from one social situation to another. What conditions make it more consistent or less consistent? How may personality also offer affect the situation?
Walter Mischel was the psychologist who first proposed that behaviors were determined more by situations rather than personalities, a theory called situationism. Personality holds that it is relatively stable across situations and circumstances. The consistency, or extent to which a trait predicts behavior, depends on the centrality of the trait, the aggregation of behaviors over time, and the type of trait being evaluated. People are more consistent in their central traits than in their secondary traits. If behaviors are averaged across many situations, personality traits are more predictive of behavior. Some traits, like honesty, will more likely be consistent across situations, whereas shyness may vary depending on the situation. A strong situation tends to discourage displays of personality, whereas a weak situation tends to let people behave more freely.
4. Discus the evidence for genetic influences on personality. How do researchers investigate this issue?
Researchers can investigate the genetic influence on any psychological issue by using identical, monozygotic, twins. Evidence gathered from James Loehlin and Robert Nichols, suggest that nearly all personality traits have a genetic component. In a study that examined the similarities in personality among over 800 pairs of twins, it was concluded that across a wide variety of traits, identical twins proved much more similar than fraternal twins. Genetic influence accounts for approximately half of the variance. Genes in DNA predispose certain personality traits associated with behavioral tendencies. It has been found that genes can be linked with some specificity to personality traits. For instance, a gene that regulates one particular dopamine receptor has been associated with novelty seeking.
5. What is self-esteem? How is it related to others' views of us? How is it related to one's success in life?
Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of the self-concept, indicating people' emotional response as the contemplate various characteristics about themselves. It is assumed that people's self-esteem is based on how they believe others perceive them. According to reflected appraisal, people internalize the values and beliefs expressed by important people in their lives, adopting them as their own. Studies have found that although people with high self-esteem reported being much happier, self-esteem is weakly related to objective life outcomes. There are many people who have been picked on with a higher IQ that go on to be successful.
Traits are behavioral dispositions that endure over time and across situations. The trait approach to personality provides a method for assessing the extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions, such as sociability, cheerfulness, and aggressiveness. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert found around 18,000 dictionary words that could be used as personality traits. Raymond Cattell narrowed 16 basic dimensions of personality. Hans Eysenck proposed a hierarchical model of personality that included five traits within extraversion. Extraversion is a superordinate trait made up of five traits: sociability, dominance, assertiveness, activity, and liveliness. Each of these subordinate traits is made up of habitual and specific responses.
2. Discuss five-factor theory of personality, What are the five factors, and what does each refer to? What are the advantages and limitations of this approach?
The five-factor theory identifies five basic personality traits. Conscientiousness is how determined by how careful and organized one is. Extraversion is how social and outgoing someone is. Agreeableness is how cooperative and trustful one is. Neuroticism is how stable and dramatic someone is. Openness to Experience is how adaptive and methodical someone is. The five-factor theory is known to be reliable across cultures and age groups despite whether people rate themselves or are rated by others. The theory is limited because the terms are descriptive rather than explanatory and limits the vast number of traits to five dimensions; however, it does provide a common descriptive framework.
3. Discuss the degree to which personality is consistent from one social situation to another. What conditions make it more consistent or less consistent? How may personality also offer affect the situation?
Walter Mischel was the psychologist who first proposed that behaviors were determined more by situations rather than personalities, a theory called situationism. Personality holds that it is relatively stable across situations and circumstances. The consistency, or extent to which a trait predicts behavior, depends on the centrality of the trait, the aggregation of behaviors over time, and the type of trait being evaluated. People are more consistent in their central traits than in their secondary traits. If behaviors are averaged across many situations, personality traits are more predictive of behavior. Some traits, like honesty, will more likely be consistent across situations, whereas shyness may vary depending on the situation. A strong situation tends to discourage displays of personality, whereas a weak situation tends to let people behave more freely.
4. Discus the evidence for genetic influences on personality. How do researchers investigate this issue?
Researchers can investigate the genetic influence on any psychological issue by using identical, monozygotic, twins. Evidence gathered from James Loehlin and Robert Nichols, suggest that nearly all personality traits have a genetic component. In a study that examined the similarities in personality among over 800 pairs of twins, it was concluded that across a wide variety of traits, identical twins proved much more similar than fraternal twins. Genetic influence accounts for approximately half of the variance. Genes in DNA predispose certain personality traits associated with behavioral tendencies. It has been found that genes can be linked with some specificity to personality traits. For instance, a gene that regulates one particular dopamine receptor has been associated with novelty seeking.
5. What is self-esteem? How is it related to others' views of us? How is it related to one's success in life?
Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of the self-concept, indicating people' emotional response as the contemplate various characteristics about themselves. It is assumed that people's self-esteem is based on how they believe others perceive them. According to reflected appraisal, people internalize the values and beliefs expressed by important people in their lives, adopting them as their own. Studies have found that although people with high self-esteem reported being much happier, self-esteem is weakly related to objective life outcomes. There are many people who have been picked on with a higher IQ that go on to be successful.
Ch. 13 Topics
1. Psychodynamic theories of personality.
Psychodynamic theory of personality, developed by Sigmund Freud, consists of unconscious forces that influence behavior. Freud referred to these forces as instincts, which usually led to behavior that promoted survival and pleasure.
2. Positive psychology.
Started by Martin Seligman, positive psychology is the study of such qualities as faith, values creativity, courage, and hope, to determine their effects on people. Correlations have been found with these positive qualities and success and well-being of not only individual people, but also countries.
3. Idiographic approach to personality as distinguished from a nomothetic approach.
Idiographic approaches are the personalities characterized by individual lives and various personal characteristics. Nomothetic approaches focus more on the common types of labeled personalities among which individuals vary.
4. Projective and objective measures of personality.
Projective measures use meaningless, or ambiguous stimulus items to elicit "unconscious conflicts and wishes" in order to determine hidden aspects of personality. The Rorschach inkblot test is a projective measure. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is another projective measure that reliably predicts how interpersonally dependent people are.
Objective measures focus only on what raters believe or observe. the objective tests, such as the NEO Personality Inventory, require people to make subjective judgments. Self-reports can be affected by desired to avoid looking bad and by biases in self-perception.
5. Temperament.
Temperaments are general tendencies to feel or act in certain ways. Temperaments represent the innate biological structures of personality, caused by gene influence. Temperaments are best measured in infants, because personality differences very early in life likely indicate the actions of biological mechanisms before life experiences may alter them.
Psychodynamic theory of personality, developed by Sigmund Freud, consists of unconscious forces that influence behavior. Freud referred to these forces as instincts, which usually led to behavior that promoted survival and pleasure.
2. Positive psychology.
Started by Martin Seligman, positive psychology is the study of such qualities as faith, values creativity, courage, and hope, to determine their effects on people. Correlations have been found with these positive qualities and success and well-being of not only individual people, but also countries.
3. Idiographic approach to personality as distinguished from a nomothetic approach.
Idiographic approaches are the personalities characterized by individual lives and various personal characteristics. Nomothetic approaches focus more on the common types of labeled personalities among which individuals vary.
4. Projective and objective measures of personality.
Projective measures use meaningless, or ambiguous stimulus items to elicit "unconscious conflicts and wishes" in order to determine hidden aspects of personality. The Rorschach inkblot test is a projective measure. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is another projective measure that reliably predicts how interpersonally dependent people are.
Objective measures focus only on what raters believe or observe. the objective tests, such as the NEO Personality Inventory, require people to make subjective judgments. Self-reports can be affected by desired to avoid looking bad and by biases in self-perception.
5. Temperament.
Temperaments are general tendencies to feel or act in certain ways. Temperaments represent the innate biological structures of personality, caused by gene influence. Temperaments are best measured in infants, because personality differences very early in life likely indicate the actions of biological mechanisms before life experiences may alter them.
Tuesday, November 16, 2010
Ch. 12 Topics
1. The conditions that make attitudes predictive of behavior.
The more specific the attitude toward something, the more predictive it is, such as liking a specific NFL team as opposed to football in general. Attitudes formed through direct experience also tend to predict behavior better. This condition explains why parenting a second child might be influenced, and therefore more predictable, by the first.
2. The difference between implicit and explicit attitudes.
Explicit attitudes are those you know about and can report to other people, such as stating things you like. Implicit attitudes are those that influence our feelings and behaviors at an unconscious level, such as confidence at something you have practiced.
3. The concept of cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is when there is a contradiction between either two attitudes or an attitude and a behavior. When someone knows something is wrong but still does it, is an example of this concept. People will often feel anxiety and tension from this contradiction and will usually try to rationalize or trivialize the discrepancy.
4. Personal attributions and their implications.
Personal attributions, also known as internal or dispositional attributions, are explanations that refer to things within people. It refers to internal characteristics such as traits, abilities, moods, efforts, etc. to explain an event or behavior.
5. Jigsaw classroom.
With the jigsaw classroom, interaction between not only individuals, but also groups occur. When a group is assigned a collective project upon a general topic, areas of this topic will be assigned to a specific person of a group like a job. The experts of the same job in all groups will then get together and collaborate and then return to their groups to relay the information. Thus the cooperation is twofold and the material is better learned.
The more specific the attitude toward something, the more predictive it is, such as liking a specific NFL team as opposed to football in general. Attitudes formed through direct experience also tend to predict behavior better. This condition explains why parenting a second child might be influenced, and therefore more predictable, by the first.
2. The difference between implicit and explicit attitudes.
Explicit attitudes are those you know about and can report to other people, such as stating things you like. Implicit attitudes are those that influence our feelings and behaviors at an unconscious level, such as confidence at something you have practiced.
3. The concept of cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is when there is a contradiction between either two attitudes or an attitude and a behavior. When someone knows something is wrong but still does it, is an example of this concept. People will often feel anxiety and tension from this contradiction and will usually try to rationalize or trivialize the discrepancy.
4. Personal attributions and their implications.
Personal attributions, also known as internal or dispositional attributions, are explanations that refer to things within people. It refers to internal characteristics such as traits, abilities, moods, efforts, etc. to explain an event or behavior.
5. Jigsaw classroom.
With the jigsaw classroom, interaction between not only individuals, but also groups occur. When a group is assigned a collective project upon a general topic, areas of this topic will be assigned to a specific person of a group like a job. The experts of the same job in all groups will then get together and collaborate and then return to their groups to relay the information. Thus the cooperation is twofold and the material is better learned.
Ch. 12 Paragraphs
1. What are attitudes and where do they come from? Discuss the following sources of attitudes:
2. How can attitudes be changed? Consider discrepancies between attitudes and behavior, as well as persuasion.
Research gathered in dissonance studies have shown that one way to get people to change their attitudes is to change their behavior. By justifying effort, it is shown that it is harder to absolve oneself from something that initially caused great dissonance therefore inflating importance and influencing attitude. In persuasion, a message is transmitted in order to change attitude. Further studies of persuasion have also found that more memorable and simplistic messages are often the most persuasive.
3. What are attributions, in general? How do attributions affect our impressions of others and of ourselves? Are our attributions accurate?
Attributions are people's explanations for events or actions. People make attributions to satisfy our basic need for order and predictability. The just world hypothesis is when we make attributions about a victim of a senseless crime. There are two main types of attributions, personal and situational. Personal attributions are explanations that refer to things within people, such as ability, mood, etc. Situational attributions are external factors, such as weather, accidents, other people, etc. Our explanations of other peoples' behavior overemphasizes their personality traits and underestimates the importance of the situation; this is called the fundamental attribution error. Because of the correspondence bias, people expect others' behaviors to correspond with their own beliefs and personalities.
4. What are stereotypes? How may they be self-fulfilling? How do they affect our behavior?
Stereotypes are cognitive schemas that help us organize information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups. Initially untrue stereotypes can become true through self-fulfilling prophecy, in which people come to behave in ways that confirm their own or others' expectations. Negative stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination, whereas positive stereotypes may lead to pleasantness.
5. How can stereotypes and the associated prejudices be changed? what evidence do we have for effectiveness of various methods?
When people are prejudice, they have negative judgments about people based on their stereotypes. Shared subordinate goals reduce hostility between groups, because they require cooperation. Muzafer Sherif did a study where he took two groups of all white, 5th-grade boys to a camp. After the two groups had spent time getting to know the members within their respective groups, they then competed against each other in high-stakes athletics. This caused prejudice and mistreatment between the groups. However, after the two groups were given subordinate goals, they became friends.
- Familiarity and the mere exposure effect.
- Classical conditioning
- Operant Conditioning
- Socialization
2. How can attitudes be changed? Consider discrepancies between attitudes and behavior, as well as persuasion.
Research gathered in dissonance studies have shown that one way to get people to change their attitudes is to change their behavior. By justifying effort, it is shown that it is harder to absolve oneself from something that initially caused great dissonance therefore inflating importance and influencing attitude. In persuasion, a message is transmitted in order to change attitude. Further studies of persuasion have also found that more memorable and simplistic messages are often the most persuasive.
3. What are attributions, in general? How do attributions affect our impressions of others and of ourselves? Are our attributions accurate?
Attributions are people's explanations for events or actions. People make attributions to satisfy our basic need for order and predictability. The just world hypothesis is when we make attributions about a victim of a senseless crime. There are two main types of attributions, personal and situational. Personal attributions are explanations that refer to things within people, such as ability, mood, etc. Situational attributions are external factors, such as weather, accidents, other people, etc. Our explanations of other peoples' behavior overemphasizes their personality traits and underestimates the importance of the situation; this is called the fundamental attribution error. Because of the correspondence bias, people expect others' behaviors to correspond with their own beliefs and personalities.
4. What are stereotypes? How may they be self-fulfilling? How do they affect our behavior?
Stereotypes are cognitive schemas that help us organize information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups. Initially untrue stereotypes can become true through self-fulfilling prophecy, in which people come to behave in ways that confirm their own or others' expectations. Negative stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination, whereas positive stereotypes may lead to pleasantness.
5. How can stereotypes and the associated prejudices be changed? what evidence do we have for effectiveness of various methods?
When people are prejudice, they have negative judgments about people based on their stereotypes. Shared subordinate goals reduce hostility between groups, because they require cooperation. Muzafer Sherif did a study where he took two groups of all white, 5th-grade boys to a camp. After the two groups had spent time getting to know the members within their respective groups, they then competed against each other in high-stakes athletics. This caused prejudice and mistreatment between the groups. However, after the two groups were given subordinate goals, they became friends.
Thursday, November 11, 2010
Emotion and Decision Making
1. How important is decision making in everyday life? What body of research has pointed to an important role for emotions in these decisions? According to the somatic-marker hypothesis, how are emotions involved in decision making?
Decision making occurs on a regular, day-to-day basis and precedes many of life's most important events. Not only do people use expected utility upon explicit knowledge of outcomes, but neuroscientists have also concluded that emotion plays a critical role in biasing decision making. According to the somatic-marker hypothesis, emotion biases decision making toward choices that maximize reward and minimize punishment.
2. What are the effects on decision making of damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)? What intellectual and problem-solving abilities do such patients have? What emotional impairments do they have? How are these impairments related to the somatic-marker hypothesis?
Patients with damage to the vmPFC, located above the eye sockets, often engaged in activities that were detrimental to their well-being and appeared unable to learn from their previous mistakes due to their repetition of these patterns. In contrast, their intellects and problem-solving abilities were normal. However, their ability to react to emotional situations was impaired, meaning that damage to the vmPFC affected their ability to use emotions to aid in their decision making. This supported the somatic-marker hypothesis in that emotions play a role in decision making, especially where the outcome is uncertain.
3. What is the Iowa Gambling Task? How do intact people differ from those with vmPFC damage on this task? How are skin conductance responses (SCRs) different for these two groups of participants? How are these patterns of response on the task different for patients with damage to the amygdala?
The Iowa Gambling Task used four decks of cards (two advantageous and two disadvantageous) and had people choose from all four decks. The two advantageous decks, which provided low reward and low punishment would eventually lead to a net gain. the two disadvantageous decks provided high reward and punishment and would lead to a net loss. "Normal individuals" after sampling all four decks equally, typically shifted their choices to the advantageous deck. Subjects with vmPFC continued to choose from the disadvantageous deck. Normal subjects also elicited higher SCRs before choosing from the disadvantageous decks whereas the subjects with vmPFC showed very little SCRs. Patients with damage to the amygdala showed similar results as those with vmPFC damage however those with amygdala damage had impaired SCRs to receiving rewards and punishments and registering the impact.
4. In what two ways may our bodily states affect our decision making? What brain areas are involved in these effects? What are "gut feelings?"
After our bodies have been feed palatable food to satiety, our responses to specific primary reinforcers are reduced by manipulations that diminished their value. This way, vmPFC neurons respond to conditioned stimuli that predict the delivery of primary reinforcers. The insular cortex, as well as the vmPFC and amygdala are involved in predicting reward and decision making. Gut feelings come from the mapping of visceral states within the insular cortex, which cause an unconscious reinforcement that is delivered in an unpredictable way.
5. Do neurons in the various brain areas mentioned above respond in ways that are consistent with the somatic-marker hypothesis?
The mesolimbic dopamine system is an area that contributes to decision making and reward processing. The activity of single neurons within the mesolimbic dopamine system is increased by primary reinforcers. These neurons also respond to stimuli that predict and the neurons shift over time. This is consistent with the role of the mesolimbic dopamine system proposed by the somatic-marker hypothesis.
6. How may the processes discussed in this article be involved in moral decisions? How may they be important in drug abuse?
Studies have found that there is a greater activation of the vmPFC when the moral decision involves negative consequence for another person. Moral decisions engage emotions, especially when one is required to consider another's well-being. Drug addiction has been found to elicit the same impairments as people with vmPFC damage, which suggests that drug addiction is promoted in part by the dysfunction of the vmPFC which would normally steer people away from harmful or negative consequences.
7. How does the somatic-marker hypothesis provide a bridge linking complex human abilities with fundamental motivations and physiological processes?
The somatic-marker hypothesis is a good base for understanding the connection with the mesolimbic dopamine system and insular cortex and how they work together to facilitate decision making through gut feelings and unconscious biasing of behavior. Because of this we can use the somatic-marker hypothesis to compare the most complex human abilities to motivational and homeostatic processes.
Decision making occurs on a regular, day-to-day basis and precedes many of life's most important events. Not only do people use expected utility upon explicit knowledge of outcomes, but neuroscientists have also concluded that emotion plays a critical role in biasing decision making. According to the somatic-marker hypothesis, emotion biases decision making toward choices that maximize reward and minimize punishment.
2. What are the effects on decision making of damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)? What intellectual and problem-solving abilities do such patients have? What emotional impairments do they have? How are these impairments related to the somatic-marker hypothesis?
Patients with damage to the vmPFC, located above the eye sockets, often engaged in activities that were detrimental to their well-being and appeared unable to learn from their previous mistakes due to their repetition of these patterns. In contrast, their intellects and problem-solving abilities were normal. However, their ability to react to emotional situations was impaired, meaning that damage to the vmPFC affected their ability to use emotions to aid in their decision making. This supported the somatic-marker hypothesis in that emotions play a role in decision making, especially where the outcome is uncertain.
3. What is the Iowa Gambling Task? How do intact people differ from those with vmPFC damage on this task? How are skin conductance responses (SCRs) different for these two groups of participants? How are these patterns of response on the task different for patients with damage to the amygdala?
The Iowa Gambling Task used four decks of cards (two advantageous and two disadvantageous) and had people choose from all four decks. The two advantageous decks, which provided low reward and low punishment would eventually lead to a net gain. the two disadvantageous decks provided high reward and punishment and would lead to a net loss. "Normal individuals" after sampling all four decks equally, typically shifted their choices to the advantageous deck. Subjects with vmPFC continued to choose from the disadvantageous deck. Normal subjects also elicited higher SCRs before choosing from the disadvantageous decks whereas the subjects with vmPFC showed very little SCRs. Patients with damage to the amygdala showed similar results as those with vmPFC damage however those with amygdala damage had impaired SCRs to receiving rewards and punishments and registering the impact.
4. In what two ways may our bodily states affect our decision making? What brain areas are involved in these effects? What are "gut feelings?"
After our bodies have been feed palatable food to satiety, our responses to specific primary reinforcers are reduced by manipulations that diminished their value. This way, vmPFC neurons respond to conditioned stimuli that predict the delivery of primary reinforcers. The insular cortex, as well as the vmPFC and amygdala are involved in predicting reward and decision making. Gut feelings come from the mapping of visceral states within the insular cortex, which cause an unconscious reinforcement that is delivered in an unpredictable way.
5. Do neurons in the various brain areas mentioned above respond in ways that are consistent with the somatic-marker hypothesis?
The mesolimbic dopamine system is an area that contributes to decision making and reward processing. The activity of single neurons within the mesolimbic dopamine system is increased by primary reinforcers. These neurons also respond to stimuli that predict and the neurons shift over time. This is consistent with the role of the mesolimbic dopamine system proposed by the somatic-marker hypothesis.
6. How may the processes discussed in this article be involved in moral decisions? How may they be important in drug abuse?
Studies have found that there is a greater activation of the vmPFC when the moral decision involves negative consequence for another person. Moral decisions engage emotions, especially when one is required to consider another's well-being. Drug addiction has been found to elicit the same impairments as people with vmPFC damage, which suggests that drug addiction is promoted in part by the dysfunction of the vmPFC which would normally steer people away from harmful or negative consequences.
7. How does the somatic-marker hypothesis provide a bridge linking complex human abilities with fundamental motivations and physiological processes?
The somatic-marker hypothesis is a good base for understanding the connection with the mesolimbic dopamine system and insular cortex and how they work together to facilitate decision making through gut feelings and unconscious biasing of behavior. Because of this we can use the somatic-marker hypothesis to compare the most complex human abilities to motivational and homeostatic processes.
Tuesday, November 9, 2010
Ch. 9 Paragraphs
1. Discuss the characteristics of motivation. How are motives related to needs, arousal, drives, homeostasis, and incentives?
Motivation is the area of psychological science concerned with the factors that energize, or stimulate, behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs categorizes needs from those most essential to sustain life, which we are the most motivated to fulfill, to humanistic psychological needs that give someone fulfillment and happiness. Needs create arousal, which is our physiological activation, and drives, which encourage behavior that satisfies needs. Basic biological and animal drives like hunger and thirst help maintain homeostasis, the equilibrium of the body. Incentives are external objects or goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors.
2. Discuss intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and how the latter can replace the former.
Extrinsic motivation are the external goals an activity is directed toward, such as working to earn a paycheck or running for a charity. Intrinsic motivation refers to the pleasure associated with an activity, such as gratification or the feeling of self-fulfillment from volunteering, or listening to music. People have a natural exploratory drive and creativity which promotes learning, solving problems, and art without reward. studies show that rewarding intrinsically motivated behaviors undermined intrinsic motivation and reduced the amount of time spent doing the intrinsic activity because of their developed expectation of a reward.
3. Discuss at least two major adaptive roles of emotions.
Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide behaviors. Emotional expressions change to exhibit how we reacts to environmental stimuli, and so that we can accurately perceive others' behavior. Negative and positive experiences guide behavior that will increase the probability of survival and reproduction. Expressions and moods give us information about what other people are feeling because we are social animals.
4. Discuss the major types of emotion that people feel and how these types are related to each other.
Primary emotions are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific biological and physical states. They include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and happiness. Secondary emotions are blends of primary emotions and include remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation. In the circumplex model emotions are mapped according to their valence (negative or positive) and activation (level of arousal).
5. Discuss the role in emotion of the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.
The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli and generates immediate emotional and behavioral responses. Because of the amygdala, people might only jump from the sight of a spider, but will run at full speed from an activated grenade. Sensory information that is passed through the thalamus will either go directly to the amygdala quickly for priority processing, or to the sensory cortex to be further scrutinized before going to the amygdala.
The right and left frontal lobes are affected by different emotions and it is believed that the variable amount of activation on either side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with specific emotional states in what is known as cerebral asymmetry. The right prefrontal cortex is more active with negative emotions and the left more so with positive emotions. It has also been theorized that people who are dominant in one hemisphere can bias emotion.
Motivation is the area of psychological science concerned with the factors that energize, or stimulate, behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs categorizes needs from those most essential to sustain life, which we are the most motivated to fulfill, to humanistic psychological needs that give someone fulfillment and happiness. Needs create arousal, which is our physiological activation, and drives, which encourage behavior that satisfies needs. Basic biological and animal drives like hunger and thirst help maintain homeostasis, the equilibrium of the body. Incentives are external objects or goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors.
2. Discuss intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and how the latter can replace the former.
Extrinsic motivation are the external goals an activity is directed toward, such as working to earn a paycheck or running for a charity. Intrinsic motivation refers to the pleasure associated with an activity, such as gratification or the feeling of self-fulfillment from volunteering, or listening to music. People have a natural exploratory drive and creativity which promotes learning, solving problems, and art without reward. studies show that rewarding intrinsically motivated behaviors undermined intrinsic motivation and reduced the amount of time spent doing the intrinsic activity because of their developed expectation of a reward.
3. Discuss at least two major adaptive roles of emotions.
Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide behaviors. Emotional expressions change to exhibit how we reacts to environmental stimuli, and so that we can accurately perceive others' behavior. Negative and positive experiences guide behavior that will increase the probability of survival and reproduction. Expressions and moods give us information about what other people are feeling because we are social animals.
4. Discuss the major types of emotion that people feel and how these types are related to each other.
Primary emotions are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific biological and physical states. They include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and happiness. Secondary emotions are blends of primary emotions and include remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation. In the circumplex model emotions are mapped according to their valence (negative or positive) and activation (level of arousal).
5. Discuss the role in emotion of the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.
The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli and generates immediate emotional and behavioral responses. Because of the amygdala, people might only jump from the sight of a spider, but will run at full speed from an activated grenade. Sensory information that is passed through the thalamus will either go directly to the amygdala quickly for priority processing, or to the sensory cortex to be further scrutinized before going to the amygdala.
The right and left frontal lobes are affected by different emotions and it is believed that the variable amount of activation on either side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with specific emotional states in what is known as cerebral asymmetry. The right prefrontal cortex is more active with negative emotions and the left more so with positive emotions. It has also been theorized that people who are dominant in one hemisphere can bias emotion.
Ch. 9 Topics
1. Negative feedback in motivation.
In the brain, the hypothalamus regulates the body in order to create a state of homeostasis. When a person is cold their brain will send signals to the skeletal muscles to shiver in an attempt to warm the body and the person will be motivated to put on a sweater.
2. Evidence for an optimal level of arousal.
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, people operate best with some arousal. People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal which is demonstrated by a parabola (inverted U). Too little arousal causes us to become bored and too much arousal can lead to anxiety.
3. How can we set goals that we are able to attain?
Good goals are those that are challenging, because they encourage effort, persistence, and concentration. Being specific when making your goals also helps. Knowing exactly what is desired to achieve may help breaking large goals into smaller steps that help build up toward reaching a goal.
4. How and why flavor variety motivates eating.
By having a variety of flavors and larger quantities of these varieties cause rats and humans to eat more, which typically leads to obesity. Because of sensory-specific satiety, animals will stop eating quickly when they have just one type of food to eat. The part of the frontal lobe that assesses reward value of food increases activity when new foods are presented.
5. The hormones that affect sexual motivation.
Females and males have all the sexual hormones. Males have a higher level of androgen and females have more estrogen and progesterone. Testosterone is an androgen that drives sexual behavior. Oxytocin is another important hormone that is released during sexual arousal and orgasm, and is believed to promote feelings of love and attachment between partners.
In the brain, the hypothalamus regulates the body in order to create a state of homeostasis. When a person is cold their brain will send signals to the skeletal muscles to shiver in an attempt to warm the body and the person will be motivated to put on a sweater.
2. Evidence for an optimal level of arousal.
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, people operate best with some arousal. People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal which is demonstrated by a parabola (inverted U). Too little arousal causes us to become bored and too much arousal can lead to anxiety.
3. How can we set goals that we are able to attain?
Good goals are those that are challenging, because they encourage effort, persistence, and concentration. Being specific when making your goals also helps. Knowing exactly what is desired to achieve may help breaking large goals into smaller steps that help build up toward reaching a goal.
4. How and why flavor variety motivates eating.
By having a variety of flavors and larger quantities of these varieties cause rats and humans to eat more, which typically leads to obesity. Because of sensory-specific satiety, animals will stop eating quickly when they have just one type of food to eat. The part of the frontal lobe that assesses reward value of food increases activity when new foods are presented.
5. The hormones that affect sexual motivation.
Females and males have all the sexual hormones. Males have a higher level of androgen and females have more estrogen and progesterone. Testosterone is an androgen that drives sexual behavior. Oxytocin is another important hormone that is released during sexual arousal and orgasm, and is believed to promote feelings of love and attachment between partners.
Wednesday, November 3, 2010
Cues and Heuristics Article
1. What are heuristics? What three classical examples of heuristics do the authors mention? What common theme may underlie many heuristics?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or thinking aids. Tversky and Kahneman first identified three canonical heuristics; availability, representativeness, and anchoring and adjustment. Findings in the various fields from social persuasion through metacognition suggest the common themes of how familiarity, context, experience, and evaluability can make cues easy to access.
2. How may effort be reduced in common heuristics? What is the main question that the authors are trying to address in this article? How does this question relate to the availability heuristic?
Effort my be reduced by using heuristics such as considering fewer alternatives, identifying only brand names, and using information that is easier to access. The article is about finding ways in which information can be accessed the easiest. Availability integrates the common heuristics which reduce effort in finding cues.
3. What are cues, and what are their main parts?
Cues are pieces of relevant information, that are easy to access when making decisions. Cues have two separate parts: a type and value. The type involves brand names and other labels. The value considers what it is made up of and how efficient it is.
4. The authors discuss two ways that cues can be acquired, and also how these cues can be evaluated. What are the possible ways that cue acquisition can occur? How can cue acquisition and cue evaluation be made easier?
Cue acquisition can occur by cue perception and cue production. In cue perception, people use task environments and perceive only information that they have already accumulated. Cue production is when people retrieve previously seen cues from memory or assess new cues. Cue evaluation is how people use cues to make a judgment or decision by evaluating the importance of cue types and values. Cue evaluation and acquisition can be made easier if they are more common across many alternatives.
5. How can perception of cue types be made easier? What is phonetic fluency, and how might it work? If people are deciding which stocks to buy, does it matter if the name of a company is easy or hard to pronounce? Does the font in which the cue value is printed matter when one judges what the quality of a product is? Do backgrounds of Web sites affect how easily we can perceive cues for a decision?
The perception of cue types can be made easier by phonetic fluency and conceptual priming. Phonetic fluency is the sound or flow of words. When choosing from foods from a menu of a foreign language, people are likely to pick the one that sounds the most pleasant. When people are buying stocks they weighed those with easier-to-pronounce names heavier. Because of priming, people will consider web sites that have backgrounds that have images to associate with different cues and font that is easier to read.
6. Sometimes the cues are not present to be perceived but rather have to be remembered by us (cue production). Might positive audience responses make cues easier to remember? Are cues that are used repeatedly easier to remember? Will they then have a greater effect on our decisions than other cues might? Do contexts affect how easily we remember different cues?
Repeated studies have shown that there is an association between "audience response" and "message quality." If an audience responds enthusiastically, it's usually because the speech was well-phrased with convincing messages. The repeated use of a cue can increase how easily it is retrieved. In context, psychological distance makes higher-level information easier to access.
7. Are some values of cues easier to remember than others are? If so why?
Cue values can be more accessible during cue production if they stem from natural assessments, or things seen on a regular basis. Because of attribute substitution, easy cues in place of hard, cues are easier to reach the more they've been used.
8. What makes different cues easy to evaluate? How might we simplify information that we are using to evaluate different choices?
Different cues are easy to evaluate because you're only comparing two objects without using numerical values by just remembering which one had the better of which qualities. When comparing two cars, instead of remembering the numeric values and different units of things like mpg, hp, age, engine size, etc. just know if one was better, worse, or equal.
9. Why is ease of access to information so important for decision making and judgment?
Heuristics that use cue types are more common than those using cue values. The ease and efficiency of information access is important because it requires the least amount of effort of people and can allow for decisions and judgments to be made faster and still attain the most desirable outcome. It also allows us to reach a decision without having to consider and access every characteristic and attribute of every alternative, because that would make ordering a meal from a menu take days if not longer, and our brains would overload.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or thinking aids. Tversky and Kahneman first identified three canonical heuristics; availability, representativeness, and anchoring and adjustment. Findings in the various fields from social persuasion through metacognition suggest the common themes of how familiarity, context, experience, and evaluability can make cues easy to access.
2. How may effort be reduced in common heuristics? What is the main question that the authors are trying to address in this article? How does this question relate to the availability heuristic?
Effort my be reduced by using heuristics such as considering fewer alternatives, identifying only brand names, and using information that is easier to access. The article is about finding ways in which information can be accessed the easiest. Availability integrates the common heuristics which reduce effort in finding cues.
3. What are cues, and what are their main parts?
Cues are pieces of relevant information, that are easy to access when making decisions. Cues have two separate parts: a type and value. The type involves brand names and other labels. The value considers what it is made up of and how efficient it is.
4. The authors discuss two ways that cues can be acquired, and also how these cues can be evaluated. What are the possible ways that cue acquisition can occur? How can cue acquisition and cue evaluation be made easier?
Cue acquisition can occur by cue perception and cue production. In cue perception, people use task environments and perceive only information that they have already accumulated. Cue production is when people retrieve previously seen cues from memory or assess new cues. Cue evaluation is how people use cues to make a judgment or decision by evaluating the importance of cue types and values. Cue evaluation and acquisition can be made easier if they are more common across many alternatives.
5. How can perception of cue types be made easier? What is phonetic fluency, and how might it work? If people are deciding which stocks to buy, does it matter if the name of a company is easy or hard to pronounce? Does the font in which the cue value is printed matter when one judges what the quality of a product is? Do backgrounds of Web sites affect how easily we can perceive cues for a decision?
The perception of cue types can be made easier by phonetic fluency and conceptual priming. Phonetic fluency is the sound or flow of words. When choosing from foods from a menu of a foreign language, people are likely to pick the one that sounds the most pleasant. When people are buying stocks they weighed those with easier-to-pronounce names heavier. Because of priming, people will consider web sites that have backgrounds that have images to associate with different cues and font that is easier to read.
6. Sometimes the cues are not present to be perceived but rather have to be remembered by us (cue production). Might positive audience responses make cues easier to remember? Are cues that are used repeatedly easier to remember? Will they then have a greater effect on our decisions than other cues might? Do contexts affect how easily we remember different cues?
Repeated studies have shown that there is an association between "audience response" and "message quality." If an audience responds enthusiastically, it's usually because the speech was well-phrased with convincing messages. The repeated use of a cue can increase how easily it is retrieved. In context, psychological distance makes higher-level information easier to access.
7. Are some values of cues easier to remember than others are? If so why?
Cue values can be more accessible during cue production if they stem from natural assessments, or things seen on a regular basis. Because of attribute substitution, easy cues in place of hard, cues are easier to reach the more they've been used.
8. What makes different cues easy to evaluate? How might we simplify information that we are using to evaluate different choices?
Different cues are easy to evaluate because you're only comparing two objects without using numerical values by just remembering which one had the better of which qualities. When comparing two cars, instead of remembering the numeric values and different units of things like mpg, hp, age, engine size, etc. just know if one was better, worse, or equal.
9. Why is ease of access to information so important for decision making and judgment?
Heuristics that use cue types are more common than those using cue values. The ease and efficiency of information access is important because it requires the least amount of effort of people and can allow for decisions and judgments to be made faster and still attain the most desirable outcome. It also allows us to reach a decision without having to consider and access every characteristic and attribute of every alternative, because that would make ordering a meal from a menu take days if not longer, and our brains would overload.
Saturday, October 30, 2010
Ch. 8 Paragraphs
1. Discuss representations and how they are used in thought. what kinds are there in general? How do they differ from each other? What evidence indicates their use in thought?
The field of cognitive psychology was originally based on the notions that the brain represents information and that cognition (the act of thinking) is directly associated with manipulating these representations. We use two basic types of representation; analogical, which have some characteristics of actual objects, and symbolic, usually words, ideas, or other abstract things. Analogical representations are mental images of an item. Studies of how long it took to identify a rotated picture of a letter and its mirror image proved that we take the longest to process an object that is inverted. In symbolic representation, we use previous knowledge of something with words and ideas. With concepts, we categorize objects with similar qualities, as is shown in the defining attribute model.
2. Discuss expected utility theory and how its limitation are shown by the evidence that people use heuristic in decision making and are influenced by framing effects.
Expected utility theory is a normative model of how humans should make decisions. This theory views decision making as a computation of utility, the overall value for each possible outcome. We then compare all the possible alternatives and rank by preference, and then choose the most desirable one. By using heuristics and algorithms, people's decision making process is influenced. With algorithms, the desired outcome is always reached. Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or "rules of thumb." With heuristics, we can decide quickly without having to weigh all of our options. When the framing effect emphasizes either the positive gains or the negative losses, we can be persuaded in our decision making.
3. Discuss how goals are involved in problem solving and at least two strategies people use for researching those goals.
When a person has goals, they use their knowledge and problem solving abilities in order to move from their current location to the desired outcome. One strategy is to use subgoals. In this we break down goals into progressive steps, where each subgoal brings us closer to our actual goals. A common heuristic strategy for overcoming problems is working backwards. Proceeding from the goal state to the initial state can generate helpful strategies. Two other strategies include restructuring a problem by representing it in a novel way that you may not have considered, and changing your mental set by using an alternative means to find a solution.
4. Distinguish the three major approaches to intelligence and one major finding from each.
General intelligence is a cumulative measurement of several intellectual abilities. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence.
Howard Gardner proposed multiple intelligences. The three intelligences included: analytical, which involved problem solving ability, creative, which involved finding novel solution processes, and practical, which included everyday judgments. Studies found that many phenomenally successful public figures did not excel academically.
Salovey, Mayor, and Goleman popularized emotional intelligence. This form of social intelligence utilized the perception, management, and understanding of emotions to guide thoughts and actions. Mood regulation and controlling behavior is an important concept of EQ.
5. Discuss the concepts of general intelligence, fluid intelligence, and crystallized intelligence and how they are studied.
General intelligence deals with the performance of intellectual tasks. Scientist agree that IQ reflects various forms of intelligence. Studies with factor analysis that clustered similar items correlated with general intelligence. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is assessed in nonverbal, more culture-fair tests, such as identifying matching, colored shapes. Crystallized intelligence was tested by having people use the knowledge they gained through an experience to solve a problem.
The field of cognitive psychology was originally based on the notions that the brain represents information and that cognition (the act of thinking) is directly associated with manipulating these representations. We use two basic types of representation; analogical, which have some characteristics of actual objects, and symbolic, usually words, ideas, or other abstract things. Analogical representations are mental images of an item. Studies of how long it took to identify a rotated picture of a letter and its mirror image proved that we take the longest to process an object that is inverted. In symbolic representation, we use previous knowledge of something with words and ideas. With concepts, we categorize objects with similar qualities, as is shown in the defining attribute model.
2. Discuss expected utility theory and how its limitation are shown by the evidence that people use heuristic in decision making and are influenced by framing effects.
Expected utility theory is a normative model of how humans should make decisions. This theory views decision making as a computation of utility, the overall value for each possible outcome. We then compare all the possible alternatives and rank by preference, and then choose the most desirable one. By using heuristics and algorithms, people's decision making process is influenced. With algorithms, the desired outcome is always reached. Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or "rules of thumb." With heuristics, we can decide quickly without having to weigh all of our options. When the framing effect emphasizes either the positive gains or the negative losses, we can be persuaded in our decision making.
3. Discuss how goals are involved in problem solving and at least two strategies people use for researching those goals.
When a person has goals, they use their knowledge and problem solving abilities in order to move from their current location to the desired outcome. One strategy is to use subgoals. In this we break down goals into progressive steps, where each subgoal brings us closer to our actual goals. A common heuristic strategy for overcoming problems is working backwards. Proceeding from the goal state to the initial state can generate helpful strategies. Two other strategies include restructuring a problem by representing it in a novel way that you may not have considered, and changing your mental set by using an alternative means to find a solution.
4. Distinguish the three major approaches to intelligence and one major finding from each.
General intelligence is a cumulative measurement of several intellectual abilities. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence.
Howard Gardner proposed multiple intelligences. The three intelligences included: analytical, which involved problem solving ability, creative, which involved finding novel solution processes, and practical, which included everyday judgments. Studies found that many phenomenally successful public figures did not excel academically.
Salovey, Mayor, and Goleman popularized emotional intelligence. This form of social intelligence utilized the perception, management, and understanding of emotions to guide thoughts and actions. Mood regulation and controlling behavior is an important concept of EQ.
5. Discuss the concepts of general intelligence, fluid intelligence, and crystallized intelligence and how they are studied.
General intelligence deals with the performance of intellectual tasks. Scientist agree that IQ reflects various forms of intelligence. Studies with factor analysis that clustered similar items correlated with general intelligence. Raymond Cattell proposed that intelligence consisted of fluid intelligence, which involves processing information, and crystallized intelligence, where we acquire knowledge through experience. Studies found that people who had a high fluid intelligence also had a high crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is assessed in nonverbal, more culture-fair tests, such as identifying matching, colored shapes. Crystallized intelligence was tested by having people use the knowledge they gained through an experience to solve a problem.
Friday, October 29, 2010
Ch. 8 Topics
1. Prototype model of the nature of concepts.
In a prototype model of concepts is thinking of the most generally known examples of a given category. The less commonly known something is, even in the correct category, the more nonprototypical it is. A particular example or prototype can be chosen for several reasons; either it is the most widely known, it might resemble the most members, or it might mean something personal.
2. Use the scripts in thinking about people.
Schemas about the sequence of events in a certain situation are called scripts. Schemas help us process and organize information that we receive by using previous knowledge. A person's schema varies when considering a person, depending on the type of behavior and appearance they're used to. When you talk about famous people you think of people you've seen on television. When you think of a homeless person, you think of an unshaven man typically with very dirty, worn clothing.
3. The difference between decision making and problem solving.
Decision making you select among alternatives, usually by identifying important criteria and determining how well each alternative satisfies these criteria. In problem solving, you overcome obstacles to reach a desired outcome.
4. How well we do in forecasting how we feel after various events occur.
People overestimate the extent to which negative events will affect them in the future. A good example of this would be how I got 4th place last year at state in tennis. Many people would consider that an admirable feat, however loosing after winning the first set 1-0, and being the last match of my high school career, was bittersweet. According to loss aversion, losing is much worse than gaining is good.
5. Validity and how it differs from reliability.
The validity of something is how true or supported by factual proof something is. In tests, it is knowing that you're measuring what you intend to be measuring. Reliability is the quality of being accurate and dependable in achievement. Reliable data is that which gives you nearly the same result from multiple tests. Experiments can be reliable and not valid if you get similar data but are not measuring the right variable.
In a prototype model of concepts is thinking of the most generally known examples of a given category. The less commonly known something is, even in the correct category, the more nonprototypical it is. A particular example or prototype can be chosen for several reasons; either it is the most widely known, it might resemble the most members, or it might mean something personal.
2. Use the scripts in thinking about people.
Schemas about the sequence of events in a certain situation are called scripts. Schemas help us process and organize information that we receive by using previous knowledge. A person's schema varies when considering a person, depending on the type of behavior and appearance they're used to. When you talk about famous people you think of people you've seen on television. When you think of a homeless person, you think of an unshaven man typically with very dirty, worn clothing.
3. The difference between decision making and problem solving.
Decision making you select among alternatives, usually by identifying important criteria and determining how well each alternative satisfies these criteria. In problem solving, you overcome obstacles to reach a desired outcome.
4. How well we do in forecasting how we feel after various events occur.
People overestimate the extent to which negative events will affect them in the future. A good example of this would be how I got 4th place last year at state in tennis. Many people would consider that an admirable feat, however loosing after winning the first set 1-0, and being the last match of my high school career, was bittersweet. According to loss aversion, losing is much worse than gaining is good.
5. Validity and how it differs from reliability.
The validity of something is how true or supported by factual proof something is. In tests, it is knowing that you're measuring what you intend to be measuring. Reliability is the quality of being accurate and dependable in achievement. Reliable data is that which gives you nearly the same result from multiple tests. Experiments can be reliable and not valid if you get similar data but are not measuring the right variable.
Friday, October 22, 2010
Ch. 7 Paragraphs
1. Discuss working memory, how it is used, and what it's limitations are.
Working memory is the short-term system that holds information for a brief period of time. Our general temporary information that we process on a regular basis and that is replaced if not saved is our immediate memory, which is very similar to the RAM of a computer. Information remains in working memory for about 20-30 seconds before disappearing unless one actively prevents that from happening. Working memory can hold a limited amount of information, usually 7 items (plus or minus two), before having to replace information. This limit is called the memory span. Organizing items into chunks make it easier to remember more information.
2. What different forms of long-term memory have been demonstrated, and how they are different from each other?
Our long-term memory is divided into the two main categories of explicit memories and implicit memories. Explicit memories are the ones that we can recall and know about. Explicit memories are divided into two groups. episodic memories, which refer to a person's past experiences which include the time, place, and events, and semantic memory, which includes random facts of information gathered without personal experience.
Implicit memories are the ones that we are not fully conscious of. Implicit memory influences peoples' lives in subtle ways. We are not always aware of why we are affected by certain things in certain ways because we can't make the connection. Classical conditioning employs implicit memory by our minds making associations that we don't recognize, but have been conditioned to.
3. Discuss the evidence that long-term memory is organized according to meaning.
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart developed the theory that memory is based on depth of elaboration. Their levels of processing model shows that the more deeply and item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered. In maintenance rehearsal, people repeats an item over and over to remember it better. In elaborative rehearsal we encode information in more meaningful was such as thinking about it more conceptually or comparing it to personal information. At the biological level of analysis, brain imaging studies have proven that semantic encoding activates the most brain regions and is best remembered, acoustic encoding is the next best, and visual is the least likely to be remembered.
4. How do we retrieve information from long-term memory?
People retrieve memories by using retrieval cues. A retrieval cue is anything that helps a person sort through the data in the long-term memory to find the right information. One example of this would include being asked a fill in the blank question. If you had a word key, however, than you might pick up on the correct answer by making the connection. With the encoding specificity principle, stimuli encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory, such as a certain smell, song, or visual.
5. Discuss the evidence that the medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, play a special role in declarative memory.
One piece of evidence that supports that the medial temporal lobes and the hippocampus play a role in memory are the results from H.M. After having parts of these region surgically removed, H.M. was unable to form new memories in what is called anterograde amnesia. However, H.M. was able to access the long-term memories he had made before the surgery. Immediate memories become lasting through consolidation. Learning leaves a biological trail or pathway in the brain by changes in the strength of neural connections. It has also been proposed that once memories are activated, they need to be consolidated again in a process called reconsolidation. Actual storage of memories most likely occurs in the particular brain regions engaged during perception. The medial temporal lobes form links between the different storage sites and direct the gradual strengthening of the connections.
Working memory is the short-term system that holds information for a brief period of time. Our general temporary information that we process on a regular basis and that is replaced if not saved is our immediate memory, which is very similar to the RAM of a computer. Information remains in working memory for about 20-30 seconds before disappearing unless one actively prevents that from happening. Working memory can hold a limited amount of information, usually 7 items (plus or minus two), before having to replace information. This limit is called the memory span. Organizing items into chunks make it easier to remember more information.
2. What different forms of long-term memory have been demonstrated, and how they are different from each other?
Our long-term memory is divided into the two main categories of explicit memories and implicit memories. Explicit memories are the ones that we can recall and know about. Explicit memories are divided into two groups. episodic memories, which refer to a person's past experiences which include the time, place, and events, and semantic memory, which includes random facts of information gathered without personal experience.
Implicit memories are the ones that we are not fully conscious of. Implicit memory influences peoples' lives in subtle ways. We are not always aware of why we are affected by certain things in certain ways because we can't make the connection. Classical conditioning employs implicit memory by our minds making associations that we don't recognize, but have been conditioned to.
3. Discuss the evidence that long-term memory is organized according to meaning.
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart developed the theory that memory is based on depth of elaboration. Their levels of processing model shows that the more deeply and item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered. In maintenance rehearsal, people repeats an item over and over to remember it better. In elaborative rehearsal we encode information in more meaningful was such as thinking about it more conceptually or comparing it to personal information. At the biological level of analysis, brain imaging studies have proven that semantic encoding activates the most brain regions and is best remembered, acoustic encoding is the next best, and visual is the least likely to be remembered.
4. How do we retrieve information from long-term memory?
People retrieve memories by using retrieval cues. A retrieval cue is anything that helps a person sort through the data in the long-term memory to find the right information. One example of this would include being asked a fill in the blank question. If you had a word key, however, than you might pick up on the correct answer by making the connection. With the encoding specificity principle, stimuli encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory, such as a certain smell, song, or visual.
5. Discuss the evidence that the medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, play a special role in declarative memory.
One piece of evidence that supports that the medial temporal lobes and the hippocampus play a role in memory are the results from H.M. After having parts of these region surgically removed, H.M. was unable to form new memories in what is called anterograde amnesia. However, H.M. was able to access the long-term memories he had made before the surgery. Immediate memories become lasting through consolidation. Learning leaves a biological trail or pathway in the brain by changes in the strength of neural connections. It has also been proposed that once memories are activated, they need to be consolidated again in a process called reconsolidation. Actual storage of memories most likely occurs in the particular brain regions engaged during perception. The medial temporal lobes form links between the different storage sites and direct the gradual strengthening of the connections.
Thursday, October 21, 2010
Ch.7 Topics
1. Partial report in visual sensory and how it shows the fading of this memory.
Sensory memory is a brief stimulus that leaves a vanishing trace on the nervous system. People can generally recall this sensory stimulus for several seconds after it is gone. When you look at something and glance away, you can usually briefly picture the image and recall some of its features. George Sperling found that we lose visual memory after about 1/3 of a second, because our memories perceive the world as a continuous stream. People who can remember segmented visual memories with detail for a period of time have photographic memories.
2. The serial position effect and its explanation.
The serial position effect deals with one's ability to remember items of a list either better at the beginning or end rather than the middle, and it involves two different effects. The primary effect deals with people who remember things at the beginning of the list better. Recency effect deals with people who remember the most recent information or the stuff at the end of a list.
3. Forms of interference in memory.
Transience occurs because of interference from other information. Proactive interference is when old information inhibits the ability to remember new information and retroactive interference is when new information inhibits the recollection of old information.
4. Two mnemonic strategies.
There are six learning mnemonic strategies. The first is to practice; the repetition of a motor skill makes it easier to perform. The second is elaborating the material because processing information at a deeper level helps people remember it. Getting adequate sleep is another strategy. Overlearn information by testing your ability to recall information multiple times. Use verbal mnemonics to come up with a catchy saying or rhyme that will make remembering easier. Visual diagrams and other aids help learners recall seeing what they previously saw.
5. Two causes of false memories.
Source amnesia is one form of false memory that occurs when a person has a memory of an event, but cannot remember the location of where it occurred. This is also related to childhood amnesia. Most people cannot remember specific memories from before age three. Confabulation is another form of false memory when someone has a false recollection of episodic memory due to a brain injury. Another name for confabulation is "honest lying" because a person doesn't realize what they're saying isn't true.
Sensory memory is a brief stimulus that leaves a vanishing trace on the nervous system. People can generally recall this sensory stimulus for several seconds after it is gone. When you look at something and glance away, you can usually briefly picture the image and recall some of its features. George Sperling found that we lose visual memory after about 1/3 of a second, because our memories perceive the world as a continuous stream. People who can remember segmented visual memories with detail for a period of time have photographic memories.
2. The serial position effect and its explanation.
The serial position effect deals with one's ability to remember items of a list either better at the beginning or end rather than the middle, and it involves two different effects. The primary effect deals with people who remember things at the beginning of the list better. Recency effect deals with people who remember the most recent information or the stuff at the end of a list.
3. Forms of interference in memory.
Transience occurs because of interference from other information. Proactive interference is when old information inhibits the ability to remember new information and retroactive interference is when new information inhibits the recollection of old information.
4. Two mnemonic strategies.
There are six learning mnemonic strategies. The first is to practice; the repetition of a motor skill makes it easier to perform. The second is elaborating the material because processing information at a deeper level helps people remember it. Getting adequate sleep is another strategy. Overlearn information by testing your ability to recall information multiple times. Use verbal mnemonics to come up with a catchy saying or rhyme that will make remembering easier. Visual diagrams and other aids help learners recall seeing what they previously saw.
5. Two causes of false memories.
Source amnesia is one form of false memory that occurs when a person has a memory of an event, but cannot remember the location of where it occurred. This is also related to childhood amnesia. Most people cannot remember specific memories from before age three. Confabulation is another form of false memory when someone has a false recollection of episodic memory due to a brain injury. Another name for confabulation is "honest lying" because a person doesn't realize what they're saying isn't true.
Tuesday, October 12, 2010
Ch. 6 Paragraphs
1. Discuss how classical conditioning produces brain changes in drug-addicted people and how these changes perpetuate the addiction.
Conditioned drug effects are common among addicts. For heroin or other drug addicts, the sight of a needle or the sensation felt when it is inserted in the skin will act as a conditioned stimulus. Brain imaging studies have shown that presenting an addict with cues that are associated with their addiction, causes activation of the prefrontal cortex as well as various parts of the limbic system. When a tolerance is developed in addicts, they will use larger doses in order to experience the same effect; in some cases a dose that would be fatal to an inexperienced user.
2. What are conditioned food aversions, how do they arise, and what is unusual about them?
A conditioned food aversion is an avoidance of certain foods. They typically arise when someone eats a particular food and then becomes ill. Regardless of whether or not the food (especially food that's not part of a typical diet) is directly the cause of the illness, people will associate that food's smell or taste with becoming sick. A food aversion can be formed after only one trial. They are easy to produce with smell or taste, but are very difficult to produce with light or sound.
3. Discuss how expectations are involved in classical conditioning. What information does the CS provide to the participant in the experiment?
Since the 1970s, scientist have come to find that not only did classical conditioning consist of US,CS,UR, and CR, but also that animals may predict the occurrence of events. The mental processes of prediction and expectancy is called cognitive perspective. In an experiment generally the conditioned stimulus occurs or is presented before the unconditioned stimulus so that the subject can learn to associate the CS with the US. However when the US is predicted before the conditioned stimulus, then it becomes harder to develop a CR. Cognitive perspective was first studied by psychologist Robert Rescorla in 1966.
4. Discuss FI, FR, VI, and VR schedules of reinforcement and what patterns of behavior they produce.
With a fixed interval (FI), a reinforcement will occur in a consistent pattern. This type of reinforcement leads to students to study only before they know a test will be given. Variable interval (VI) is the randomly timed distribution of reinforcement, such as a person listening to the radio, waiting for a particular song. Fixed ratio (FR) is the consistent rate of the amount of reinforcement given, such as earning an hourly wage. Variable ratio (VR) is the highest response to reinforcement and is the unexpected amount and time of reinforcement, such as that in gambling at a slot machine. Ratio reinforcement generally leads to greater responding than does interval reinforcement. A worker who is paid by the piece is going to be more productive than one who is paid by the hour.
5. What are cognitive maps, and what evidence indicates that laboratory rats learn them rather than particular behaviors?
Cognitive maps are spatial representations of a maze or other pathway. In a test developed and tested by Edward Tolman, and early cognitive theorist, he used three groups of rats. The first group of rats had to find its way through a maze with no reinforcement. This group showed little improvement in the number of errors it cut down after 17 days. The second group of rats were consistently given reinforcement at the end of the maze and made steady improvement by decreasing the number of errors the rats made in finding the food. The third group of rats were given reinforcement after 10 days without it. The first 11 days the rats made little improvement. But after the first day they had received reinforcement, it decreased the number of errors they made dramatically, indicating that the rats indeed had learned a cognitive map of the maze and used it when the reinforcement began. Latent learning applied to the first groups of rats that learned the maze, but without reinforcement.
Conditioned drug effects are common among addicts. For heroin or other drug addicts, the sight of a needle or the sensation felt when it is inserted in the skin will act as a conditioned stimulus. Brain imaging studies have shown that presenting an addict with cues that are associated with their addiction, causes activation of the prefrontal cortex as well as various parts of the limbic system. When a tolerance is developed in addicts, they will use larger doses in order to experience the same effect; in some cases a dose that would be fatal to an inexperienced user.
2. What are conditioned food aversions, how do they arise, and what is unusual about them?
A conditioned food aversion is an avoidance of certain foods. They typically arise when someone eats a particular food and then becomes ill. Regardless of whether or not the food (especially food that's not part of a typical diet) is directly the cause of the illness, people will associate that food's smell or taste with becoming sick. A food aversion can be formed after only one trial. They are easy to produce with smell or taste, but are very difficult to produce with light or sound.
3. Discuss how expectations are involved in classical conditioning. What information does the CS provide to the participant in the experiment?
Since the 1970s, scientist have come to find that not only did classical conditioning consist of US,CS,UR, and CR, but also that animals may predict the occurrence of events. The mental processes of prediction and expectancy is called cognitive perspective. In an experiment generally the conditioned stimulus occurs or is presented before the unconditioned stimulus so that the subject can learn to associate the CS with the US. However when the US is predicted before the conditioned stimulus, then it becomes harder to develop a CR. Cognitive perspective was first studied by psychologist Robert Rescorla in 1966.
4. Discuss FI, FR, VI, and VR schedules of reinforcement and what patterns of behavior they produce.
With a fixed interval (FI), a reinforcement will occur in a consistent pattern. This type of reinforcement leads to students to study only before they know a test will be given. Variable interval (VI) is the randomly timed distribution of reinforcement, such as a person listening to the radio, waiting for a particular song. Fixed ratio (FR) is the consistent rate of the amount of reinforcement given, such as earning an hourly wage. Variable ratio (VR) is the highest response to reinforcement and is the unexpected amount and time of reinforcement, such as that in gambling at a slot machine. Ratio reinforcement generally leads to greater responding than does interval reinforcement. A worker who is paid by the piece is going to be more productive than one who is paid by the hour.
5. What are cognitive maps, and what evidence indicates that laboratory rats learn them rather than particular behaviors?
Cognitive maps are spatial representations of a maze or other pathway. In a test developed and tested by Edward Tolman, and early cognitive theorist, he used three groups of rats. The first group of rats had to find its way through a maze with no reinforcement. This group showed little improvement in the number of errors it cut down after 17 days. The second group of rats were consistently given reinforcement at the end of the maze and made steady improvement by decreasing the number of errors the rats made in finding the food. The third group of rats were given reinforcement after 10 days without it. The first 11 days the rats made little improvement. But after the first day they had received reinforcement, it decreased the number of errors they made dramatically, indicating that the rats indeed had learned a cognitive map of the maze and used it when the reinforcement began. Latent learning applied to the first groups of rats that learned the maze, but without reinforcement.
Monday, October 11, 2010
Ch. 6 Topics
1. Evidence that extinction does not eliminate an association.
Extinction is when the conditioned stimulus is not followed with the expected result. The conditioned response gradually disappears. Although the conditioned response man be extinguished, it does not eliminate the association because spontaneous recovery can return after the conditioned response is trained.
2. How drug administration is a classical conditioning trial.
Like many addictions, the craving for a substance, be it drug or caffeine, can be partially relieved when a drug addict sees a needle or injects themselves with some alternative substance. Coffee addicts satisfy their craving partially by just smelling the aroma of the coffee bean. This works in the opposite affect as well, as how a drug addict will crave drugs when they see a straight-edge razor.
3. Who Edward L. Thorndike was and what he studied.
Thorndike was a student who worked with William James at Harvard and was influenced by Darwin. He studied whether or not nonhuman animals showed signs of intelligence. By creating a puzzle box for animals and doing numerous test, he developed the law of effect, which states that any behavior leading to a "satisfying state of affairs" will increase the likelihood that that action or behavior will be repeated.
4. How to get an animal to display a behavior that it doesn't show on it own?
You can train an animal by means of conditioning and reinforcement. You start gradually by rewarding actions that somewhat resemble the desired action, and then selectively actions that are closer and closer to the desired outcome.
5. The difference between positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement usually involves a reward and increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated. Negative reinforcement usually involves the removal of a stimulus such as a irritant that ceases when a lever or button is pushed. It removes a stimuli in order to teach.
Extinction is when the conditioned stimulus is not followed with the expected result. The conditioned response gradually disappears. Although the conditioned response man be extinguished, it does not eliminate the association because spontaneous recovery can return after the conditioned response is trained.
2. How drug administration is a classical conditioning trial.
Like many addictions, the craving for a substance, be it drug or caffeine, can be partially relieved when a drug addict sees a needle or injects themselves with some alternative substance. Coffee addicts satisfy their craving partially by just smelling the aroma of the coffee bean. This works in the opposite affect as well, as how a drug addict will crave drugs when they see a straight-edge razor.
3. Who Edward L. Thorndike was and what he studied.
Thorndike was a student who worked with William James at Harvard and was influenced by Darwin. He studied whether or not nonhuman animals showed signs of intelligence. By creating a puzzle box for animals and doing numerous test, he developed the law of effect, which states that any behavior leading to a "satisfying state of affairs" will increase the likelihood that that action or behavior will be repeated.
4. How to get an animal to display a behavior that it doesn't show on it own?
You can train an animal by means of conditioning and reinforcement. You start gradually by rewarding actions that somewhat resemble the desired action, and then selectively actions that are closer and closer to the desired outcome.
5. The difference between positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement usually involves a reward and increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated. Negative reinforcement usually involves the removal of a stimulus such as a irritant that ceases when a lever or button is pushed. It removes a stimuli in order to teach.
Sunday, October 10, 2010
Blindness Article Questions
1. What major recent shift in our understanding of the brain is described at the beginning of the article? What may be the practical importance of this shift?
Neuroscientists now understand that the brain is capable of significant change and adaptation. The importance of these findings deals with the understanding of how sensory input in patients who are blind has changed or adapted so that advancements can be made in the field of sensory substitution and restoration devices.
2. How are blind people able to cope with their environment? Might their other perceptual abilities be unusually good? Might blindness lead to disruptions of development that impair other perceptual abilities? What does the evidence show on these questions?
Blind individuals have to make major adjustments in order to interact effectively with their environment. Despite the common belief that individuals who lack sensory function in one of their senses develop superior abilities in their other senses, in fact blindness has the potential to disrupt brain development and knowledge acquisition. It has been studied and found that blindness has detrimental repercussions on the processing of spatial information that is gathered through the remaining senses.
3. How do blind people read? In what other ways does their communication compensate for absence of vision? What part of the brain may allow these adaptations to blindness?
Blind people read Braille, using the pad of their fingers to touch an array of raised dots. This scanning of spatial information with their sense of touch, interprets the dots into meaningful patterns that translate to semantic and lexical properties. A blind patient also relies on verbal descriptions and verbal memory in place of visual perception. The visual cortex, which is used by a sighted person to recognize objects and read visually, does the same job in blind person who reads by touch and relies on verbal language.
4. What does brain imaging (fMRI, PET) evidence show about what part of the brain may be involved in reading Braille, at least in people who lost their vision early in life? Is the same activation present for other tasks involving touch? Does a similar reorganization occur in other forms of sensory loss?
Evidence shows that the both sides of the visual cortex, in the occipital lobe, was activated while early-blind subjects read Braille. The same evidence was reported in the primary visual cortex when early-blind subjects performed tactile-discrimination tasks such as angle discrimination, but the same activation did not occur when the same subjects tried to feel a homogeneous pattern of Braille dots. Cross-modal plasticity has also been reported in the auditory domain, so basically it works generally the same way with other senses too, but in their general areas.
5. Does the occipital lobe play a casual role in adaptations to blindness? What observations were made in a stroke patient?
Functional neuroimaging has established an association between activity in the brain and performance, rather than a casual link. To establish a casual link, scientists studied patients with localized brain damage. Because evidence shows that patients who were able to proficiently read Braille became unable to do so following a bilateral occipital stroke, the notion of a casual link is supported between the ability to read Braille and the occipital function.
6. What is TMS? What effect does it have when applied to the somatosensory cortex of sighted and blind people? What effect does it have when applied to the occipital cortex? What do these results imply?
TMS is transcranial magnetic stimulation. It disrupts cortical activity and creates a "virtual lesion." It impaired the ability of subjects to identify Braille letter but not embossed Roman Letters, when applied to the occipital cortex. In sighted and blind subjects who had TMS delivered to the somatosensory cortex, it interfered with detection of tactile stimulus presented 20-40 milliseconds earlier. The evidence showed that tactile information reaches the cortex by the somatosensory cortex, which is engaged in detection , while the occipital cortex contributes to the perception of tactile stimuli.
7. What happens to the occipital cortex of people who are blindfolded for several days? Is this the same change as is observed in blind people?
The primary visual cortex is recruited in blindfolded subjects to process tactile and auditory stimuli. Due to the speed of the functional changes it can be concluded that no new cortical connections are established, only previous connections are used. These findings differ from those of early-blind subjects who have more activity in the occipital cortex from tactile domain.
8. What differences have been found between those who lose their vision early (before 4-6 years of age) and those who lose it late in life? What is the role of the occipital cortex in verbally memory in blind people?
Using a verb-generating test, it was found that early-blind patients differ from late-blind patients in parts of the brain that were used in creating verbal responses. Although the occipital cortex was active in both groups, it was substantially more so in early-blind subjects, especially in the left hemisphere, as opposed to the sighted control group that showed activation in the typical language related areas (Broca's area).
9. What two major processes may account for the adaptations of blind people? Might the occipital cortex have broader roles in everyone? What important practical implications may arise from work like that discussed in this article?
The brains ability to reorganize the occipital lobe from processing visual information to processing the information of other senses, and the occipital cortex's possession of the computational machinery necessary for the processing of non-visual information accounts for the possibility of adaptations of the brain in blind people. Because of the occipital cortex's ability to be the ideal processor of visual information in sighted patients and it's ability to structurally change by establishing new neural connections in blindfolded and blind patients, does give it a fundamental role in the processing of sensory information. The occipital cortex's plasticity imply that there is a good chance of not only the brains adaptivity for survival but the potential for individuals to compensate for their disabilities and technological aid in repairing or substituting for a person's ability in sensory processing.
Neuroscientists now understand that the brain is capable of significant change and adaptation. The importance of these findings deals with the understanding of how sensory input in patients who are blind has changed or adapted so that advancements can be made in the field of sensory substitution and restoration devices.
2. How are blind people able to cope with their environment? Might their other perceptual abilities be unusually good? Might blindness lead to disruptions of development that impair other perceptual abilities? What does the evidence show on these questions?
Blind individuals have to make major adjustments in order to interact effectively with their environment. Despite the common belief that individuals who lack sensory function in one of their senses develop superior abilities in their other senses, in fact blindness has the potential to disrupt brain development and knowledge acquisition. It has been studied and found that blindness has detrimental repercussions on the processing of spatial information that is gathered through the remaining senses.
3. How do blind people read? In what other ways does their communication compensate for absence of vision? What part of the brain may allow these adaptations to blindness?
Blind people read Braille, using the pad of their fingers to touch an array of raised dots. This scanning of spatial information with their sense of touch, interprets the dots into meaningful patterns that translate to semantic and lexical properties. A blind patient also relies on verbal descriptions and verbal memory in place of visual perception. The visual cortex, which is used by a sighted person to recognize objects and read visually, does the same job in blind person who reads by touch and relies on verbal language.
4. What does brain imaging (fMRI, PET) evidence show about what part of the brain may be involved in reading Braille, at least in people who lost their vision early in life? Is the same activation present for other tasks involving touch? Does a similar reorganization occur in other forms of sensory loss?
Evidence shows that the both sides of the visual cortex, in the occipital lobe, was activated while early-blind subjects read Braille. The same evidence was reported in the primary visual cortex when early-blind subjects performed tactile-discrimination tasks such as angle discrimination, but the same activation did not occur when the same subjects tried to feel a homogeneous pattern of Braille dots. Cross-modal plasticity has also been reported in the auditory domain, so basically it works generally the same way with other senses too, but in their general areas.
5. Does the occipital lobe play a casual role in adaptations to blindness? What observations were made in a stroke patient?
Functional neuroimaging has established an association between activity in the brain and performance, rather than a casual link. To establish a casual link, scientists studied patients with localized brain damage. Because evidence shows that patients who were able to proficiently read Braille became unable to do so following a bilateral occipital stroke, the notion of a casual link is supported between the ability to read Braille and the occipital function.
6. What is TMS? What effect does it have when applied to the somatosensory cortex of sighted and blind people? What effect does it have when applied to the occipital cortex? What do these results imply?
TMS is transcranial magnetic stimulation. It disrupts cortical activity and creates a "virtual lesion." It impaired the ability of subjects to identify Braille letter but not embossed Roman Letters, when applied to the occipital cortex. In sighted and blind subjects who had TMS delivered to the somatosensory cortex, it interfered with detection of tactile stimulus presented 20-40 milliseconds earlier. The evidence showed that tactile information reaches the cortex by the somatosensory cortex, which is engaged in detection , while the occipital cortex contributes to the perception of tactile stimuli.
7. What happens to the occipital cortex of people who are blindfolded for several days? Is this the same change as is observed in blind people?
The primary visual cortex is recruited in blindfolded subjects to process tactile and auditory stimuli. Due to the speed of the functional changes it can be concluded that no new cortical connections are established, only previous connections are used. These findings differ from those of early-blind subjects who have more activity in the occipital cortex from tactile domain.
8. What differences have been found between those who lose their vision early (before 4-6 years of age) and those who lose it late in life? What is the role of the occipital cortex in verbally memory in blind people?
Using a verb-generating test, it was found that early-blind patients differ from late-blind patients in parts of the brain that were used in creating verbal responses. Although the occipital cortex was active in both groups, it was substantially more so in early-blind subjects, especially in the left hemisphere, as opposed to the sighted control group that showed activation in the typical language related areas (Broca's area).
9. What two major processes may account for the adaptations of blind people? Might the occipital cortex have broader roles in everyone? What important practical implications may arise from work like that discussed in this article?
The brains ability to reorganize the occipital lobe from processing visual information to processing the information of other senses, and the occipital cortex's possession of the computational machinery necessary for the processing of non-visual information accounts for the possibility of adaptations of the brain in blind people. Because of the occipital cortex's ability to be the ideal processor of visual information in sighted patients and it's ability to structurally change by establishing new neural connections in blindfolded and blind patients, does give it a fundamental role in the processing of sensory information. The occipital cortex's plasticity imply that there is a good chance of not only the brains adaptivity for survival but the potential for individuals to compensate for their disabilities and technological aid in repairing or substituting for a person's ability in sensory processing.
Tuesday, October 5, 2010
Ch. 5 Paragraphs
1. What are hits and false alarms, and how are they used in signal detection theory to separate the experiment participants sensitivity to a signal from the response bias of that participant?
A hit is when a participant reports a signal when a stimulus signal has been given. A false alarm is when a signal has been reported but no stimulus signal was activated. Response bias refers to a participant's tendency to report detecting the signal in and ambiguous trial. When a participant is given any previous knowledge about something before being tested. they might be partial to either report a signal regardless of whether or not they actually detected the stimulus and vice versa.
2. Where is light transformed into neural signals, and how do these neural signals reach the primary visual cortex?
After light passes through the cornea and the lens, it is refracted to the retina at the back of the eyeball. Then photoreceptors in the retina transduces the light in the rods and cones. After the information has been transduced, it is passed through bipolar amacrine, and horizontal cells that perform sophisticated computations on the incoming signals. Lastly the signal converges on ganglion cells, in the optic nerve and send the translated signal through neurons up to the thalamus.
3. What evidence indicates that our ability to see colors is based upon three underlying components?
Because there are three different types of cones, S, M, and L that can perceive different wavelengths of colors, is one reason why we can see colors. The visible spectrum resides in waves that length from 400-700 nanometers, darker cooler colors being near 400 and lighter warmer colors measuring near 700 nm. In the color spectrum there are also three primary colors, red blue, and yellow, as well as three dimensions, hue, lightness, and saturation.
4. What evidence indicates that our ability to perceive the identity of an object is somewhat separate from our perception of its location? What areas of the brain are involved in the perceptions?
Using equipment such as the fMRI, scientist have found that neural activity is prominent in different parts of the brain for the identification of an object, as opposed to its location. Neural impulses received by the occipital lobe from the eyes are divided into two streams. The ventral "what" stream goes to the temporal lobe in order for the item to be identified. The dorsal "where" stream goes to the parietal lobe in order to be translated as information concerning the location of an object.
5. How are we able to perceive objects, or even pictures, as three-dimensional, that is, as having depth?
A three-dimensional array of objects creates exactly the same image on the retina that a photograph does. We are able to perceive depth in these two-dimensional patterns because the brain applies the same rules or mechanisms that it uses to wok out the spatial relations between objects in the three-dimensional world. Binocular depth cues are cues received from both eyes that have to do with binocular disparity or the difference between the perceptions of the two eyes to determine the spatial distance in the real world. Monocular depth cues are those received from each individual eye which are better for determining pictorial depth.
A hit is when a participant reports a signal when a stimulus signal has been given. A false alarm is when a signal has been reported but no stimulus signal was activated. Response bias refers to a participant's tendency to report detecting the signal in and ambiguous trial. When a participant is given any previous knowledge about something before being tested. they might be partial to either report a signal regardless of whether or not they actually detected the stimulus and vice versa.
2. Where is light transformed into neural signals, and how do these neural signals reach the primary visual cortex?
After light passes through the cornea and the lens, it is refracted to the retina at the back of the eyeball. Then photoreceptors in the retina transduces the light in the rods and cones. After the information has been transduced, it is passed through bipolar amacrine, and horizontal cells that perform sophisticated computations on the incoming signals. Lastly the signal converges on ganglion cells, in the optic nerve and send the translated signal through neurons up to the thalamus.
3. What evidence indicates that our ability to see colors is based upon three underlying components?
Because there are three different types of cones, S, M, and L that can perceive different wavelengths of colors, is one reason why we can see colors. The visible spectrum resides in waves that length from 400-700 nanometers, darker cooler colors being near 400 and lighter warmer colors measuring near 700 nm. In the color spectrum there are also three primary colors, red blue, and yellow, as well as three dimensions, hue, lightness, and saturation.
4. What evidence indicates that our ability to perceive the identity of an object is somewhat separate from our perception of its location? What areas of the brain are involved in the perceptions?
Using equipment such as the fMRI, scientist have found that neural activity is prominent in different parts of the brain for the identification of an object, as opposed to its location. Neural impulses received by the occipital lobe from the eyes are divided into two streams. The ventral "what" stream goes to the temporal lobe in order for the item to be identified. The dorsal "where" stream goes to the parietal lobe in order to be translated as information concerning the location of an object.
5. How are we able to perceive objects, or even pictures, as three-dimensional, that is, as having depth?
A three-dimensional array of objects creates exactly the same image on the retina that a photograph does. We are able to perceive depth in these two-dimensional patterns because the brain applies the same rules or mechanisms that it uses to wok out the spatial relations between objects in the three-dimensional world. Binocular depth cues are cues received from both eyes that have to do with binocular disparity or the difference between the perceptions of the two eyes to determine the spatial distance in the real world. Monocular depth cues are those received from each individual eye which are better for determining pictorial depth.
Ch. 5 Topics
1. The process of transduction.
Transduction is the result of special neurons, that are in the sense organs, that pick up physical and chemical stimulation. The neurons then code the information into a signal that can be translated by other neurons as it is sent back to the brain.
2. The concept of difference threshold.
A difference threshold is the smallest difference that a person can detect. All of the senses of the body are not "supersonic" for instance, and the difference threshold changes with each person because of damage, environment, etc.
3. The receptors for sound and how they are activated.
Auditory neurons in the thalamus extend to the primary auditory cortex (A1) in the temporal lobe. Neurons in the rear of A1 hear lower frequencies, while neurons in the front of A1 hear higher pitches.
4. The three psychological dimensions of color.
The hue of a color is its identity or name, e.g., red. The brightness or lightness of a color is its shade or tint. The saturation of a color is its closeness to the actual color or its concentration, such as a glob of gray with just a drop or two of red.
5. The concept of opposite colors.
Opposite colors come from the ganglia cells of the optic nerve. These cells receive excitatory input from one type of cone but are then inhibited by another type of cone.
Transduction is the result of special neurons, that are in the sense organs, that pick up physical and chemical stimulation. The neurons then code the information into a signal that can be translated by other neurons as it is sent back to the brain.
2. The concept of difference threshold.
A difference threshold is the smallest difference that a person can detect. All of the senses of the body are not "supersonic" for instance, and the difference threshold changes with each person because of damage, environment, etc.
3. The receptors for sound and how they are activated.
Auditory neurons in the thalamus extend to the primary auditory cortex (A1) in the temporal lobe. Neurons in the rear of A1 hear lower frequencies, while neurons in the front of A1 hear higher pitches.
4. The three psychological dimensions of color.
The hue of a color is its identity or name, e.g., red. The brightness or lightness of a color is its shade or tint. The saturation of a color is its closeness to the actual color or its concentration, such as a glob of gray with just a drop or two of red.
5. The concept of opposite colors.
Opposite colors come from the ganglia cells of the optic nerve. These cells receive excitatory input from one type of cone but are then inhibited by another type of cone.
Sunday, September 26, 2010
Ch.4 Topics
1. What is addiction, and what brain processes play a central role in it?
Addiction is the physiological dependence on a drug or foreign substance. The insula region of the brain and the chemical dopamine are hyperactive when an addict craves and uses drugs, and is damaged when drugs are abused.
2. How the study of brain activity in consciousness might help people who are paralyzed.
In one study, microchips were implanted into quadriplegic patients. The chips were able to translate cortex motor neurons that had fired and then used these firings as a remote to control robotic movements, such as a prosthetic device.
3. Blindsight and its implications.
In blindsight, usually some part of the visual system is damaged leaving the patient unable to see, however the patient is able to identify specifics of the item, such as if it is moving. Some of the visual information goes to the amygdala, so even if the visual regions of the brain are injured, parts of the signals will still be interpreted by other parts of the brain.
4. REM sleep
(Rapid eye movement) the fast darting of the eyes beneath the eyelids. Also called paradoxical sleep because the body is resting and the brain is active.
5. The concept of flow.
Flow is an optimal experiednce, in that the acgtivit is completely absorbing and completely satisfying. They lose track of time, and doesn't notice or realized external conflict or things.
6. How expectations modify alcohol effect.
Some people drink because they believe they will get the expected result or effect from drinking, such as some relaxation from only a small to moderate amount of alcohol consumption, or negative, violent effects from excessive amounts of alcohol. Impairment only blocks out annoyances that people experience after becoming intoxicated. Problems they had before they started drinking, have been proven to bother the person worse.
Addiction is the physiological dependence on a drug or foreign substance. The insula region of the brain and the chemical dopamine are hyperactive when an addict craves and uses drugs, and is damaged when drugs are abused.
2. How the study of brain activity in consciousness might help people who are paralyzed.
In one study, microchips were implanted into quadriplegic patients. The chips were able to translate cortex motor neurons that had fired and then used these firings as a remote to control robotic movements, such as a prosthetic device.
3. Blindsight and its implications.
In blindsight, usually some part of the visual system is damaged leaving the patient unable to see, however the patient is able to identify specifics of the item, such as if it is moving. Some of the visual information goes to the amygdala, so even if the visual regions of the brain are injured, parts of the signals will still be interpreted by other parts of the brain.
4. REM sleep
(Rapid eye movement) the fast darting of the eyes beneath the eyelids. Also called paradoxical sleep because the body is resting and the brain is active.
5. The concept of flow.
Flow is an optimal experiednce, in that the acgtivit is completely absorbing and completely satisfying. They lose track of time, and doesn't notice or realized external conflict or things.
6. How expectations modify alcohol effect.
Some people drink because they believe they will get the expected result or effect from drinking, such as some relaxation from only a small to moderate amount of alcohol consumption, or negative, violent effects from excessive amounts of alcohol. Impairment only blocks out annoyances that people experience after becoming intoxicated. Problems they had before they started drinking, have been proven to bother the person worse.
Monday, September 20, 2010
Ch.4 Paragraphs
1. What are we conscious of? What different levels of consciousness are there?
Consciousness can be described as moment-to-moment subjective thought, such as one's current thought or awareness of one's surroundings. There are three levels of consciousness; full consciousness, minimally conscious, and vegetative state. Full consciousness is when a person has a focused awareness and a constant thinking pattern. A minimally conscious person should be able to make some deliberate movements, but not persistent thought, such as when you're watching tv. Vegetative state is when only one's automatic responses are in tact, like coma.
2. What is a "split brain?" What evidence indicates that splitting the brain also splits the mind and consciousness?
A split brain is when the corpus callosum is severed and the two halves are almost completely isolated from each other. When a brain is split, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa because the eyes function backwards.The left hemisphere is also responsible for speech and language while the right side is more fore logistics, science, etc.
3. What changes in brain activity occur as a person goes to sleep, and how do we measure those changes?
The brain does not shut down during sleep. It stops receiving many of its sensor messages, but it's still active. It still, to some extent remains aware of the surrounding environment. Sleep is an altered level of consciousness. Scientists use an EEG or electroencephalogram, to measure electrical activity in the brain.
4. What is hypnosis, and what evidence supports the claim that it is an altered state of consciousness?
Hypnosis is a social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/ or voluntary action. Evidence gathered by Kihlstrom & Eich suggest that like unconscious stimuli, posthypnotic suggestions can at least subtly influence behaviors. Hypnosis depends on whether or not the subject is suggestible. The left hemisphere interpreter might be involved in people understanding their own behavior, when that behavior results from posthypnotic suggestion, or other unconscious influence. According to sociocognitive theory of hypnosis, hypnotized people behave as expected. In dissociation theory of hypnosis, hypnosis is an altered mental state in which conscious awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness.
Consciousness can be described as moment-to-moment subjective thought, such as one's current thought or awareness of one's surroundings. There are three levels of consciousness; full consciousness, minimally conscious, and vegetative state. Full consciousness is when a person has a focused awareness and a constant thinking pattern. A minimally conscious person should be able to make some deliberate movements, but not persistent thought, such as when you're watching tv. Vegetative state is when only one's automatic responses are in tact, like coma.
2. What is a "split brain?" What evidence indicates that splitting the brain also splits the mind and consciousness?
A split brain is when the corpus callosum is severed and the two halves are almost completely isolated from each other. When a brain is split, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa because the eyes function backwards.The left hemisphere is also responsible for speech and language while the right side is more fore logistics, science, etc.
3. What changes in brain activity occur as a person goes to sleep, and how do we measure those changes?
The brain does not shut down during sleep. It stops receiving many of its sensor messages, but it's still active. It still, to some extent remains aware of the surrounding environment. Sleep is an altered level of consciousness. Scientists use an EEG or electroencephalogram, to measure electrical activity in the brain.
4. What is hypnosis, and what evidence supports the claim that it is an altered state of consciousness?
Hypnosis is a social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/ or voluntary action. Evidence gathered by Kihlstrom & Eich suggest that like unconscious stimuli, posthypnotic suggestions can at least subtly influence behaviors. Hypnosis depends on whether or not the subject is suggestible. The left hemisphere interpreter might be involved in people understanding their own behavior, when that behavior results from posthypnotic suggestion, or other unconscious influence. According to sociocognitive theory of hypnosis, hypnotized people behave as expected. In dissociation theory of hypnosis, hypnosis is an altered mental state in which conscious awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness.
Tuesday, September 14, 2010
Ch. 3 Paragraphs
1. What are monozygotic and dizygotic twins, and how can we compare them to determine whether some behavior is partly caused by genetic factors?
Monozygotic twins are identical twins that resulted from one fertilized egg dividing into two zygotes. Each zygote has the same chromosomes and the same genes. Research has proved that monozygotic twins' DNA might not be so identical. Dizygotic twins or fraternal twins result from two separate eggs being fertilized and developing in the womb simultaneously. Studies have found that identical twins, raised separate or not, end up being much more alike than dizygotic twins.
2. What is the difference between axons and dendrites, and what functions do they serve in neurons?
Dendrites are the short branch-like appendages of a neuron that increase the neuron's receptive field and detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons. Axons are the long narrow outgrowth of a neuron that transmit information to other neurons. Axons can vary in length between a millimeter to more than a meter. Neurons do not touch each other; instead they communicate and transmit information by sending chemical signals and electrical impulses through the terminal buttons that protrude from one end of a neuron to the dendrites of another neuron through a small gap called the synapse.
3. Describe the resting potential and the action potential. What ion movements occur during the action potential?
Resting membrane potential is when a neuron's inside and outside differ electrically while it is inactive. Action potential (neural firing) is the electrical signal that passes along the axon and causes the release of chemicals that transmit signals to other neurons. In its inactive state, a neuron is slightly negatively charged. When a neurons fires, sodium gates in the cell membrane open allowing sodium ions in which cause the neurons to become slightly more positive because of depolarization. A fraction of a second later potassium channels open causing the neuron to return to its negative state (repolarization).
4. How do neurotransmitters allow one neuron to communicate with another?
Every terminal button has vesicles that contain neurotransmitters, a chemical substance that carries signals across the synaptic cleft. after an action potential, the vesicles release the neurotransmitters which then span across the synapse and attach themselves to the postsynaptic neuron.
5. List the four lobes that form each brain hemisphere, and describe the areas of the cortex that process seeing, hearing, touch, and movement.
The frontal lobe of the brain is basically the front upper third of the brain and is responsible for the ability to think, plan, and move. The temporal lobe is a large majority of the bottom rear side of the brain. It deals with the ability to hear, which makes sense considering the ears are right on top of it. The parietal lobe is the back upper half of the brain and deals with touch and spatial relations. The occipital lobe is the back lower little corner of the brain which deals with vision.
Monozygotic twins are identical twins that resulted from one fertilized egg dividing into two zygotes. Each zygote has the same chromosomes and the same genes. Research has proved that monozygotic twins' DNA might not be so identical. Dizygotic twins or fraternal twins result from two separate eggs being fertilized and developing in the womb simultaneously. Studies have found that identical twins, raised separate or not, end up being much more alike than dizygotic twins.
2. What is the difference between axons and dendrites, and what functions do they serve in neurons?
Dendrites are the short branch-like appendages of a neuron that increase the neuron's receptive field and detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons. Axons are the long narrow outgrowth of a neuron that transmit information to other neurons. Axons can vary in length between a millimeter to more than a meter. Neurons do not touch each other; instead they communicate and transmit information by sending chemical signals and electrical impulses through the terminal buttons that protrude from one end of a neuron to the dendrites of another neuron through a small gap called the synapse.
3. Describe the resting potential and the action potential. What ion movements occur during the action potential?
Resting membrane potential is when a neuron's inside and outside differ electrically while it is inactive. Action potential (neural firing) is the electrical signal that passes along the axon and causes the release of chemicals that transmit signals to other neurons. In its inactive state, a neuron is slightly negatively charged. When a neurons fires, sodium gates in the cell membrane open allowing sodium ions in which cause the neurons to become slightly more positive because of depolarization. A fraction of a second later potassium channels open causing the neuron to return to its negative state (repolarization).
4. How do neurotransmitters allow one neuron to communicate with another?
Every terminal button has vesicles that contain neurotransmitters, a chemical substance that carries signals across the synaptic cleft. after an action potential, the vesicles release the neurotransmitters which then span across the synapse and attach themselves to the postsynaptic neuron.
5. List the four lobes that form each brain hemisphere, and describe the areas of the cortex that process seeing, hearing, touch, and movement.
The frontal lobe of the brain is basically the front upper third of the brain and is responsible for the ability to think, plan, and move. The temporal lobe is a large majority of the bottom rear side of the brain. It deals with the ability to hear, which makes sense considering the ears are right on top of it. The parietal lobe is the back upper half of the brain and deals with touch and spatial relations. The occipital lobe is the back lower little corner of the brain which deals with vision.
Ch. 3 Topics
1. What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
The genotype is an organism's genetic code or makeup. The phenotype is the visible characteristics that result from the genetic code such as brown hair or green eyes.
2. What are some distinctions between motor, sensory, and interneurons?
Motor neurons travel from the brain to the body's different receptors in order to cause a motor reaction, such as an muscle contraction. Sensory neurons detect information from the physical world and send signals through the spinal cord to the brain. Interneurons communicate within small areas of the brain. They integrate neural activity in the brain.
3. What is dopamine and what function does it serve?
Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter responsible for causing desire for things that involve satisfaction and pleasure, such as hunger and thirst. It also causes the body to move towards things that give reward. Basically our sin response.
4. What is the amygdala and what does it do?
The amygdala is the almond shaped part of the brain that deals with associating emotional responses with things. An example would be an expression of happiness at the sight of a park due to previous fond memories. "A frightening experience may be seared into one's memory for life, although their memory of the event may not be completely accurate."
5. Learning is apart of several different parts of the brain. Emotional responses and feelings associated with specific things is done in the amygdala. Motor memory or planned movements is controlled by the basal ganglia. Memory and thought is more of a function of the prefrontal cortex.
The genotype is an organism's genetic code or makeup. The phenotype is the visible characteristics that result from the genetic code such as brown hair or green eyes.
2. What are some distinctions between motor, sensory, and interneurons?
Motor neurons travel from the brain to the body's different receptors in order to cause a motor reaction, such as an muscle contraction. Sensory neurons detect information from the physical world and send signals through the spinal cord to the brain. Interneurons communicate within small areas of the brain. They integrate neural activity in the brain.
3. What is dopamine and what function does it serve?
Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter responsible for causing desire for things that involve satisfaction and pleasure, such as hunger and thirst. It also causes the body to move towards things that give reward. Basically our sin response.
4. What is the amygdala and what does it do?
The amygdala is the almond shaped part of the brain that deals with associating emotional responses with things. An example would be an expression of happiness at the sight of a park due to previous fond memories. "A frightening experience may be seared into one's memory for life, although their memory of the event may not be completely accurate."
5. Learning is apart of several different parts of the brain. Emotional responses and feelings associated with specific things is done in the amygdala. Motor memory or planned movements is controlled by the basal ganglia. Memory and thought is more of a function of the prefrontal cortex.
Friday, September 10, 2010
Topics
Professions in psychology:
Biology and physiology both make use of psychology in understanding the brain and how it works. Pharmacology make use of the brain by determining the effects of some medications and in attempting to cure some psychological illnesses.
Adaptivity:
A natural fear of heights at and early age is an example of the adaptivity of the mind. Also, Individuals strive to be social and surrounded by people. Society supports individuals keep from exclusion.
Empirical:
Psychology is an empirical science because it is based on information gathered either from experience or experimentation. It uses the five senses to collect data and make educated inferences.
fMRI:
The fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) is used to monitor activity in different parts of the brain. It can be used to compare with other tests in order to make logical supported psychological theories.
Biology and physiology both make use of psychology in understanding the brain and how it works. Pharmacology make use of the brain by determining the effects of some medications and in attempting to cure some psychological illnesses.
Adaptivity:
A natural fear of heights at and early age is an example of the adaptivity of the mind. Also, Individuals strive to be social and surrounded by people. Society supports individuals keep from exclusion.
Empirical:
Psychology is an empirical science because it is based on information gathered either from experience or experimentation. It uses the five senses to collect data and make educated inferences.
fMRI:
The fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) is used to monitor activity in different parts of the brain. It can be used to compare with other tests in order to make logical supported psychological theories.
Thursday, September 9, 2010
Chapter 1 Questions
Chapter 1 Topics
1. fMRI and why it is an important research tool.
fMRI stands for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. It helps scan a person's brain, shows when certain brain structures are activated.
2. What "empirical" means, and how psychology is an empirical science.
Empirical has to do with what we're able to know through our senses. Psychological science relies on empirical evidence in order to achieve an accurate understanding. Empirical sciences is founded on observations that we make with out senses.
3. An example of the adaptive value of the mind.
An example of the adaptive value of the mind is that humans have a need to belong to a group, and all societies discourage behaviors that may lead to social exclusion.
4. When psychology became a discipline and the two main founders of the discipline.
Psychology became a discipline in 1879. The main founders of the discipline are Wilhelm Wundt and William James.
5. How at least two professions make use of psychological knowledge.
Lawyers, advertisers, and physicians make use of psychological knowledge. Lawyers need to know how groups make decisions in order to persuade jurors. Advertisers must know how attitudes are formed or changed and to what extent people's attitudes predict their behavior. Physicians need to know how to relate to their patients, how their behaviors are linked to health, and what motivates or discourages them from seeking medical care.
Chapter 1 Questions
1. What is psychological science?
Psychological science is the study of mind, brain, and behavior. Psychologists try to understand how people perceive, think, and act in a variety of situations. Different developments in study methods are helping improve the understanding of the human mind and behavior. Research helps psychologists explain human behaviors in real-life contexts. Psychologists try to figure out what makes other people tick. What people do, think and feel.
2. How are the mind and brain related to each other?
The mind refers to mental activity. The perceptual experiences while a person interacts with the world. Sight, taste, smell, hearing, and touch are all examples of the mind in action. Memories, thoughts, and feelings also show the mind in action. Mental activity comes from actions of nerve cells, neurons, and chemical reactions within the brain. The physical brain enables the mind. The "Mind is what the brain does".
3. What are the levels of analysis, and how are these levels illustrated by human use and experience of music?
The first level of analysis is the biological level. Studies of music's effects on mood at the biological level have shown that pleasant music may be associated with increased activation of one brain chemical, serotonin, which is relevant to mood. Case studies have shown that some patients with certain types of brain injury become unable to hear tones and melody but not speech or environmental sounds. The second level is the individual level of analysis. Studies have shown that mood may be affected not only by the tempo of music but by whether the music is in major or minor mode. In Western music, major mode is associated with positive moods and minor mode is associated with sad moods. Children can distinguish mood effects by age seven or eight. The third level is the social level of analysis. When people are alone they might like quiet, contemplative music, with others they might like more upbeat music that encourages dancing. The final level is cultural analysis. African music has rhythmic structures different from those in Western music which might reflect the important rule of dancing and drumming in African folktales The influences of major and minor modes on mood hold only within certain cultures.
4. What is the role of women in the discipline of psychology, and how has it changed since the late 19th century?
Many women like Mary Whiton Calkins, and Margaret Flay Washburn have contributed to psychology history. Today women make up about 70 percent of psychology majors and nearly half of all new psychology doctorates. Today, contributions from women are acknowledged but in the early 19th century they were ignored. Calkins had a hard time continuing her studies at Harvard. After she completed all the requirements for a PhD, she took the qualifying exam and scored higher than all her male classmates. Even then, Harvard refused to give her a degree. Calkins became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. Margaret Flay Washburn was the first woman to be officially granted a PhD in psychology and was the second woman president of the American Psychological Association.
5. What is critical thinking, and how can you improve your critical thinking activities as you study psychology?
Critical thinking is a systematic way of evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions. Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal oriented. Considering alternative explanations, looking for holes in evidence, and using logic and reasoning to see if information makes sense. It involves keeping an open mind. In order to improve my critical thinking skills I need to be skeptical of overblown media reports of new findings gained by research. Critical thinkers consider alternative explanations for behavior and seek quality research.
1. fMRI and why it is an important research tool.
fMRI stands for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. It helps scan a person's brain, shows when certain brain structures are activated.
2. What "empirical" means, and how psychology is an empirical science.
Empirical has to do with what we're able to know through our senses. Psychological science relies on empirical evidence in order to achieve an accurate understanding. Empirical sciences is founded on observations that we make with out senses.
3. An example of the adaptive value of the mind.
An example of the adaptive value of the mind is that humans have a need to belong to a group, and all societies discourage behaviors that may lead to social exclusion.
4. When psychology became a discipline and the two main founders of the discipline.
Psychology became a discipline in 1879. The main founders of the discipline are Wilhelm Wundt and William James.
5. How at least two professions make use of psychological knowledge.
Lawyers, advertisers, and physicians make use of psychological knowledge. Lawyers need to know how groups make decisions in order to persuade jurors. Advertisers must know how attitudes are formed or changed and to what extent people's attitudes predict their behavior. Physicians need to know how to relate to their patients, how their behaviors are linked to health, and what motivates or discourages them from seeking medical care.
Chapter 1 Questions
1. What is psychological science?
Psychological science is the study of mind, brain, and behavior. Psychologists try to understand how people perceive, think, and act in a variety of situations. Different developments in study methods are helping improve the understanding of the human mind and behavior. Research helps psychologists explain human behaviors in real-life contexts. Psychologists try to figure out what makes other people tick. What people do, think and feel.
2. How are the mind and brain related to each other?
The mind refers to mental activity. The perceptual experiences while a person interacts with the world. Sight, taste, smell, hearing, and touch are all examples of the mind in action. Memories, thoughts, and feelings also show the mind in action. Mental activity comes from actions of nerve cells, neurons, and chemical reactions within the brain. The physical brain enables the mind. The "Mind is what the brain does".
3. What are the levels of analysis, and how are these levels illustrated by human use and experience of music?
The first level of analysis is the biological level. Studies of music's effects on mood at the biological level have shown that pleasant music may be associated with increased activation of one brain chemical, serotonin, which is relevant to mood. Case studies have shown that some patients with certain types of brain injury become unable to hear tones and melody but not speech or environmental sounds. The second level is the individual level of analysis. Studies have shown that mood may be affected not only by the tempo of music but by whether the music is in major or minor mode. In Western music, major mode is associated with positive moods and minor mode is associated with sad moods. Children can distinguish mood effects by age seven or eight. The third level is the social level of analysis. When people are alone they might like quiet, contemplative music, with others they might like more upbeat music that encourages dancing. The final level is cultural analysis. African music has rhythmic structures different from those in Western music which might reflect the important rule of dancing and drumming in African folktales The influences of major and minor modes on mood hold only within certain cultures.
4. What is the role of women in the discipline of psychology, and how has it changed since the late 19th century?
Many women like Mary Whiton Calkins, and Margaret Flay Washburn have contributed to psychology history. Today women make up about 70 percent of psychology majors and nearly half of all new psychology doctorates. Today, contributions from women are acknowledged but in the early 19th century they were ignored. Calkins had a hard time continuing her studies at Harvard. After she completed all the requirements for a PhD, she took the qualifying exam and scored higher than all her male classmates. Even then, Harvard refused to give her a degree. Calkins became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. Margaret Flay Washburn was the first woman to be officially granted a PhD in psychology and was the second woman president of the American Psychological Association.
5. What is critical thinking, and how can you improve your critical thinking activities as you study psychology?
Critical thinking is a systematic way of evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions. Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal oriented. Considering alternative explanations, looking for holes in evidence, and using logic and reasoning to see if information makes sense. It involves keeping an open mind. In order to improve my critical thinking skills I need to be skeptical of overblown media reports of new findings gained by research. Critical thinkers consider alternative explanations for behavior and seek quality research.
Wednesday, September 8, 2010
Studying Handout
What is usually assumed about studying and about testing?
Studying usually leads to better test scores. The tests are a measurement of how much material was learned.
What were the goals of the authors in designing this experiment?
To examine the long-standing assumptions of the effectiveness of studying and to see if learning something faster helps people remember it better. The students also predicted how well they thought they would do on the test.
What kinds of materials were used?
The students were taught Swahili, which was considered to be something that would put all of the students on a level basis.
What were the independent variables?
The independent variables included whether or not people studied or were tested.
* When one group of subjects are tested doing different things, studies are being done within subjects.
* When several groups are tested doing different things and compared, studies are done between subjects.
What are the drop-out conditions? Are they related to common education?
Subjects were dropped from some groups for people who demonstrated proficient scores that proved they knew the material. It does relate to common education because education is added on and only slightly reviewed every year.
What was the dependent variable?
The dependent variable, or what was being measured, was the amount of material that the students remembered, based on their test scores.
Did the different groups perform different in learning?
There were no significant differences between their results.
Did the groups predictions differ?
No, about every group predicted they would remember about half.
Did the groups differ on the test? Which variable mattered and how much?
The two groups that did not test did not do as well as those that did. Studying was not as relevant in helping them learn the material.
Studying usually leads to better test scores. The tests are a measurement of how much material was learned.
What were the goals of the authors in designing this experiment?
To examine the long-standing assumptions of the effectiveness of studying and to see if learning something faster helps people remember it better. The students also predicted how well they thought they would do on the test.
What kinds of materials were used?
The students were taught Swahili, which was considered to be something that would put all of the students on a level basis.
What were the independent variables?
The independent variables included whether or not people studied or were tested.
* When one group of subjects are tested doing different things, studies are being done within subjects.
* When several groups are tested doing different things and compared, studies are done between subjects.
What are the drop-out conditions? Are they related to common education?
Subjects were dropped from some groups for people who demonstrated proficient scores that proved they knew the material. It does relate to common education because education is added on and only slightly reviewed every year.
What was the dependent variable?
The dependent variable, or what was being measured, was the amount of material that the students remembered, based on their test scores.
Did the different groups perform different in learning?
There were no significant differences between their results.
Did the groups predictions differ?
No, about every group predicted they would remember about half.
Did the groups differ on the test? Which variable mattered and how much?
The two groups that did not test did not do as well as those that did. Studying was not as relevant in helping them learn the material.
Tuesday, September 7, 2010
The Beginning of Psychology
Psychology as a science was talked about and recorded as far back as the time of Aristotle and Confucius. Since the late 1800s, it has radically expanded into the diverse subject that it is today. There are many people who contributed largely to psychology.
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory. He also developed the method of introspection, or a person's perspective or opinion of an object.
William James a professor of physiology at Harvard traded over to psychology and gave the first psychology lecture during his classes. He also wrote the book Principles of Psychology in 1890. James believed in a stream of consciousness or continuous series of thoughts.
Charles Darwin too contributed partly to psychology in developing functionalism, which dealt with the evolution of the mind and the purpose it serves in preserving life.
Behaviorism is the result of the studies of John B. Watson who in 1913 questioned the effects of the environment on one's behavior or responses.
Sigmund Freud was responsible for the studies dealing with a person's level of unconsciousness. He used psychoanalysis to try to make someone's unconscious contents to their conscious awareness.
George A. Miller started the Center for Cognitive Science at Harvard in 1957. Cognitive psychology deals with higher-order mental functions such as thinking, intelligence, language, memory, and decision making.
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory. He also developed the method of introspection, or a person's perspective or opinion of an object.
William James a professor of physiology at Harvard traded over to psychology and gave the first psychology lecture during his classes. He also wrote the book Principles of Psychology in 1890. James believed in a stream of consciousness or continuous series of thoughts.
Charles Darwin too contributed partly to psychology in developing functionalism, which dealt with the evolution of the mind and the purpose it serves in preserving life.
Behaviorism is the result of the studies of John B. Watson who in 1913 questioned the effects of the environment on one's behavior or responses.
Sigmund Freud was responsible for the studies dealing with a person's level of unconsciousness. He used psychoanalysis to try to make someone's unconscious contents to their conscious awareness.
George A. Miller started the Center for Cognitive Science at Harvard in 1957. Cognitive psychology deals with higher-order mental functions such as thinking, intelligence, language, memory, and decision making.
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